wpwM-TOy qiygBBH Un a/^a 







XTbe IRural Ucxu:!Boo\\ Series 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



Sriir laural ErxM3ook Scries 

Mann, Beginnings in Agriculture. 
Warren, Elements of Agriculture. 
Warren, Farm Management. 
Lyon and Fippin, Soil Management. 
J. F. DuGGAR, Southern Field Crops. 
B. M. Duggar, Plant Physiology. 
Harper, Animal Husbandry for Schools. 
Montgomery, Corn Crops. 
Wheeler, Manures and Fertilizers. 
LiviN(iSTON, Field Crop Production. 

Others in preparation. 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



A TEXT-BOOK FOR ELEMENTARY COURSES 

IN SCHOOLS AND BEIEF COURSES 

IN COLLEGES 



BY 
GEORGE LIVINGSTON 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY 
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1914 

JIl rig/its reserved 



O i_j - :."' O 



Copyright, 1914, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published April, 1914. 



APR 30 1914 



J. 8. Cushinis,'' Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass.. U.S.A. 




(PCI.A369000 



'; ' h 



PREFACE 

This book is intended to supply in convenient form gen- 
eral information regarding the subject of field crops, for 
use in agricultural schools and in elementary courses in 
colleges. It is in no sense a complete or exhaustive trea- 
tise on the subject, such as would be desired for regular 
college courses in field crops. 

In the author's judgment, the most effective method of 
presenting the subject of field crops to students in ele- 
mentary courses is by the combination textbook and lec- 
ture plan, the textbook to furnish basic information, and 
the lecture to include such specific information as the in- 
structor cares to give. In very elementary courses, the 
textbook would probably furnish the principal source of 
instruction. In presenting the subject of field crops to 
students of short or two-year courses in agricultural col- 
leges, it is necessary, on account of the vast amount of 
experimental data which is accumulating and constantly 
changing, to devote a large part of the time allowed to the 
course to information of this sort, which leaves but little 
time for presenting the more elementary phases of the 
subject. A more complete and satisfactory course can, in 
the author's opinion, be given if the student by the aid 
of a general textbook can acquire these elementary facts 
outside of class hours. The elementary courses may be 
made very complete, if desired, by the use of such a text- 
book, and the devoting of the major part of the lecture 



vi PREFACE 

periods to the consideration of experimental results in gen- 
eral, to the making of local applications and the applying of 
the principles of plant physiology and plant-breeding to field 
crops. 

Many students in field crop courses, both in agricultural 
schools and colleges, have come from town or city homes, 
and have had little or no farm experience. While it is not 
possible to acquire farm experience from a textbook, it is 
possible to gain from such a source much of the general 
information which is lacking. 

In the writing of this book there has been included but 
little statistical matter and but little experimental data, 
which can be presented in a more up-to-date form by 
means of lectures. As the book was originally written, it 
contained some discussion of all of the North American 
field crops, but in order to keep it within a reasonable size, 
it has been necessary to omit some of them, the most im- 
portant of which are sugar cane and tobacco. 

The author has observed, first as a student and later as 
an instructor, that the interest which the student feels in 
any subject depends largely upon whether or not the sub- 
ject matter is presented in an attractive manner. For that 
reason he has included in this book somewhat in detail 
some facts which are of interest but not generally con- 
sidered of vital importance. 

It is hoped that this book will prove useful as a general 
textbook of field crops in elementary courses, and as a sup- 
plementary textbook in other courses, for students with 
little or no elementary knowledge of the subject. 

I am indebted to C. G. Williams and F. A. Welton of the 
Ohio Experiment Station, to Professor E. G. Montgomery 
and Dr. H. H. Love, of Cornell University, to C. R. Ball 
and Dr. C. E. Leighty, of the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, and to Professor H. D. Hughes, of Iowa State 



PREFACE vii 

College, who have read the manuscript in whole or in part 
and who have offered many helpful suggestions. I am 
grateful to those who have written chapters which have 
been included in the text, and which appear under their 
names, and to those who have furnished illustrations, to 
whom credit is given in the list of illustrations. I wish 
also to express my appreciation to my wife, Inez Van 
Sickle Livingston, for her constant assistance in preparing 
the manuscript for the press. 

GEORGE LIVINGSTON. 

Ohio State University, 
CoLUMBL's, Ohio. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

Introductory View ........ 1-13 

Classification of plants, 2 — Variety, 3 — Genus, 4 — 
Naming of plants, 5 — The family, 5 — Order, class, and 
division, 6 — Length of life, 7 — Cultivated plants, 8 — 
Field crops, 8 — Classification of field crops, 9 — Defi- 
nition of terms, 12. 

chaptp:r II 

Crop Rotations ......... 14-28 

Rotation experiments at Rothamsted, 15 — Rotation 
experiments in Iowa and Illinois, 17 — Rotation experi- 
ments in Ohio, 18 — Why rotations give better yields, 
20 — Planning a rotation, 23 — Rotation does not main- 
tain fertility, 25 — Suggested rotations, 27. 

CHAPTER III 

Corn or Maize 29-58 

Historical, 29 — Botanical characteristics, 30 — Root, 
stem, and leaves, 30-33 — Flowers, ear, and kernel, 34- 
37 — Ancestors of the corn plant, 38 — Types of corn, 
41-50 — Uses of corn plant, 50-53 — The world's pro- 
duction, 54 — Adaptation, 57. 

CHAPTER IV 

Corn or Maize {Continued) ...... 59-98 

Methods of culture, 59 — Plowing and preparing the 
land, 61-67 — Testing the seed, 68 — Time, depth, and 

ix 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGES 



rate of plantinG:, 71-74 — Cultivation, 75 — Harvesting 
and storing, 76-82 — Improvement of corn, 82 — Vari- 
ety test, 83 — Seed selection, 85 — Ear-to-row test, 88 — 
Breeding and multiplying plot, 90-91 — Corn judging, 92 

— Insects and fungous diseases, 93-98. 

CHAPTER V 

Wheat 99-144 

Historical, 99 — Botanical characteristics, 100 — Root, 
stem, and leaves, 100-103 — Spikelets, flowers, and ker- 
nel, 103-106 — Types of wheat, 107-113 — Uses of wheat, 
113 — Evolution of flour mill and modern milling, 114- 
119 — The world's production, 119 — Production in the 
United States, 121 — World's supply and demand, 122 

— Wheat districts of the United States, 123-126 — 
Adaptation, 127 — Methods of culture, 129-136 — Im- 
provement of wheat, 136 — The variety test, 137 — The 
head-row test, 139 — Wheat judging, 141 — Insects and 
fungous diseases, 142-144. 

CHAPTER VI 

Oats 145-163 

Historical, 145 — Botanical characters, 145 — The 
leaves and flowers, 147 — Types of oats, 150 — Uses of 
oats, 150-152 — The world's production, 152 — Produc- 
tion in the United States, 152 — Exports and imports, 
153 — Adaptation, 154 — Methods of culture, 155-160 — 
Improvement of oats, 161 — Insect enemies and fungous 
diseases, 162. 

CHAPTER VII 

Barley 164-176 

Historical, 164 — Botanical characters, 165-166 — 
Types of barley, 167 — Uses of barley, 168-170 — The 
world's production, 171 — Exports and imports, 172 — 
Adaptation, 172 — Methods of culture, 173-175 — Insect 
enemies and fungous diseases, 176. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 

CHAPTER yill 

PAGES 

Rye . 177-183 

Historical, 177 — Botanical characteristics, 177 — Uses 
of rye, 178 — Production, 180 — Adaptation, 181 — 
Methods of culture, 182 — Fungous diseases and insect 
enemies, 183. 

CHAPTER IX 

Rice and Buckwheat ....... 184-193 

Rice: Historical, 184 — Botanical characteristics, 184 
— Uses, 185 — Production and distribution, 186 — Adap- 
tation, 187 — Cultural methods, 188 — Buckwheat : His- 
torical, 180 — Description, 180 — Uses, 101 — Production, 
101 — Cultural methods, 102. 

CHAPTER X 

The Perennial Grasses 104-209 

Timothy: Description, 104 — Distribution and adap- 
tation, 10() — Cultural methods, 107-200 — Kentucky 
blue-grass : Description, 201 — Distribution and adapta- 
tion, 203 — Uses, 204 — Cultural methods, 205 — Canada 
blue-grass, 206 — Redtop : Description, 206 — Adapta- 
tion and distribution, 208 — Uses, 208 — Cultural meth- 
ods, 209. 

CHAPTER XI 

Other Perennial Grasses ....... 210-220 

Orchard grass : Description, 210 — Distribution and 
adaptation, 211 — Uses, 211 — Cultural methods, 212 — 
Brome-grass, 212-215 — The fescues, 215-217 — Ber- 
muda-grass, 217-218 — Johnson-grass, 219 — The rye- 
grasses, 210. 

CHAPTER XII 

Annual Grasses for Grain and Forage .... 221-238 
The millets : The foxtail millets, 221-224 — The broom- 
corn millets, 224 — The barnyard millets, 225 — Pearl 



xii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGES 

millet, 226 — Uses of millets, 226 — Cultural methods, 
227 — The sorghums : General description, 228 — Sac- 
charine sorghums or sorgo, 229-232 — The non-saccha- 
rine sorghums, 232-235 — The broomcorns, 235-238. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Legumes in Genehal ........ 239-252 

Description, 239 — The flowers, 240 — Pollination, 242 

— Relation to soil fertility, 245 — Bacteria in relation to 
legume, 247-250 — Inoculation, 250. 

CHAPTER XIV 

The Clovers 253-277 

Historical, 253 — Red clover : Description, 254-256 — 
Distribution and adaptation, 256-258 — Uses, 258 — 
Cultural methods, 259-263 — Mammoth clover : Descrip- 
tion, 264 — Uses and cultural methods, 264-266 — White 
clover: Description, 266 — Adaptation and uses, 267 — 
Cultural methods, 268 — Alsike clover : Description, 269 

— Adaptation, 270 — Uses and cultural methods, 270- 

272 — Crimson clover : Description, 272 — Adaptation, 

273 — Uses and cultural methods, 274-276 — Fungous 
diseases and insect enemies, 276. 

CHAPTER XV 

Alfalfa 278-293 

Description and varieties, 279-281 — Distribution and 
adaptation, 282-283 — Use of alfalfa, 285 — Cultural 
methods, 286-292. 

CHAPTER XVr 

The Vetches, Sweet Clovers, and Others . , . 294-304 
The vetches, 294-297— The sweet clovers, 298-301 — 
Bur clovers, 302 — Japan clover, 303. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



XlU 



CHAPTER XVII 

LEGuaiEs FOR Grain and Forage ..... 

The soybean : Description, 305 — Distribution and 
adaptation, 307 — Uses and cultural methods, 308-312 — 
The cowpea : Description, 312 — Distribution and adap- 
tation, 314 — Cultural methods, 315 — The field pea: 
Description, 316 — Distribution and adaptation, 317 — 
Cultural methods, 318 — The field bean, 320 — The pea- 
nut, 321. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Root Crops and Related Products .... 

Introductory, 323 — The sugar beet, 324-328 — Mangel 
wnrzels, 329-330 — Turnips and rutabagas, 331 — The 
carrot, 332 — Rape : Description, 333 — Distribution and 
adaptation, 333 — Uses, 334 — Cultural methods, 335. 



PAGES 

305-322 



323-336 



CHAPTER XrX 

The Fiber Crops ........ 

Cotton : Description, 339 — Kinds of cotton, 341 — 
Marketing and uses, 343 — Production and adaptation, 
345 — Methods of culture, 348 — Flax : Description, 351 
— Uses, 352 — Production and distribution, 354 — Cul- 
tural methods, 355 — Hemp, 356. 



337-357 



CHAPTER XX 

^HE Potato 358-369 

Production, 358 — Description, 359 — Cultural meth- 
ods, 360 — Sprouting and planting, 361-362 — Varieties, 
363 — Harvesting and storing, 366 — Insects and fungous 
diseases, 366-368. 

CHAPTER XXI 

Meadows and Pastures 370-380 

Meadows and pastures as field crops, 370 
tion, 371 — Grass mixtures, 372 



The rota- 
Testing the seed, 374 



xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGES 

— Seeding, 377 — Care of grass lands, 377 — Temporary- 
pastures, 370 — Substitute hay crops, 380. 

CHAPTER XXII 

The Marketing of Grain 381-395 

Supply and demand, 381 — The country elevator, 382 

— Cooperative and line elevators, 383 — The terminal 
market, 384 — Grain inspection and methods employed, 
386 — Methods of sale, 389 — The price of grain, 392 — 
Export trade, 394. 

APPENDIX 

Reference Books ........ 397-398 

List of Experiment Stations ...... 399 

Composition of Field Crops ...... 400-401 

Review Questions ........ 403-416 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Small plots of cereals at the Dominion of Canada Experimental 

Farms, Ottawa Frontispiece 

FIGURE PAGE 

1. Comparative value of crops in United States ... 9 

2. Six leading crops of United States 11 

3. Flowers of the corn plant. (Extension Department, Ohio 

State University) . . . . .... 35 

4. Ear of dent corn with small ears clustered at base . . 39 

5. A branching corn plant . 40 

6. Cross section of a kernel of dent corn ..... 42 

7. An ear of dent corn ........ 43 

8. Cross section of a kernel of flint corn ..... 44 

9. An ear of flint corn 45 

10. Kice pop corn ......... 46 

11. Cross section of a kernel of soft corn ..... 47 

12. An ear of soft corn ........ 48 

13. An ear of sweet corn ........ 48 

14. An ear of pod corn. (Extension Department, Ohio State 

University) ........ 49 

15. Unfertilized and fertilized corn plots ..... 60 

16. Plowing with a tractor. (^Country GentJeman) ... 62 

17. A field of corn destroyed by grub worms .... 64 

18. Rye plowed under. (Extension Department, Ohio State 

University) .... ..... 66 

19. A good type of roller for crushing clods. (Extension Depart- 

ment, Ohio State University) 67 

20. Making a germination test. (Extension Department, Ohio 

State University) . 69 

21. Planting corn with a check rower 73 

22. Harvesting corn with a corn binder. (International Har- 

vester Company) 78 

23. Filling the silo 79 

XV 



XVI 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIGU 

24. 



RE 

A 



34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 



41. 
42. 

43. 
44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 
49. 

50. 



(Agronomy Department, Ohio 
(Extension Department, Oliio 
(Agronomy Department 



test 



field of corn in shock, 
Station) . 

25. A rack for storing corn. 

State University) . 

26. Remnants of an ear-row 

Oliio Station) ........ 

27. Corn-breeding plot 

28. Corn-multiplying plot ....... 

29. A sample of show corn ....... 

30. Diagram showing manner of growth .... 

31. Diagram showing stooling or tillering in wheat 

32. Variation in number of culms per plant. (Agronomy De 

partment, Ohio Station) 

33. Variation in size of head and number of spikelets. (Ohio 

Station) . 
A spikelet of wheat 



Einkorn 

Spelt 

Emmer . 

Club wheat 

Polish wheat 

Loaves of bread illustrating the baking qualities of flour 
made from different varieties of wheat. (Extension 
Department, Ohio State University) . . . , 

"Wheat crops of the leading countries of the world 

Cross section of a poorly and well prepared seed bed. (Ex- 
tension Department, Ohio State University) . 

Harvesting wheat. (Dr. C. E. Saunders, Ottawa, Canada) 

A combination harvester and thrasher. {Successful Farm- 
ing) 

Thrashing wheat in the Northwest ..... 

Variety tests of wheat showing earliness of Marquis. (Dr. 
C. E. Saunders, Experimental Farms, Ottawa, Canada) 

Head-row test at Ohio Station showing variation in erectness 
of heads. (Agronomy Department, Ohio Station) 

Head-row test showing variation in yield of straw and grain 

Harvesting wheat plots at Cornell University. (Plant Breed- 
ing Department) ........ 

Spikelet of oats 



80 

86 

89 
90 
91 
93 
101 
102 

103 

104 
105 
108 
109 
109 
110 
112 



117 
120 

130 
134 

135 
136 

138 

139 

140 

141 
146 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 



51-52. Side and branched panicle of oats. (Plant Breeding 

Department, Cornell University) . 
53 Broad-casting oats. (Successful Farming) 

54. Seeding oats with a drill 

55. Testing varieties of cereals. (Dr. C. E. Saunders, Dominion 

Experimental Farms, Ottawa) 

56. Variation in stiffness of straw 

57. Treating seed oats for smut. (Extension Department, Ohio 

State University) . 

58. Covered and loose smut of oats 

59. Spikelets of barley 

60. Two-rowed barley 

61. Six-rowed barley . 

62. A field of Manchurian barley at Indian Head, Canada. (Dr 

C. E. Saunders) 

63. A head of rye . • . 

64. Plowing under rye. (Extension Department, Ohio State 

University) 



148 
157 

158 

159 
160 

161 
162 
165 
166 
167 

174 

178 

180 

65. Rye seeded in corn at last cultivation. (Successful Farming) 182 

66. A panicle of rice ......... 185 

67. Harvesting rice in Arkansas. (Successful Farming) . . 188 

68. Buckwheat in bloom . .190 

69. Timothy in bloom. (Plant Breeding Department, Cornell 

University) . . . . . . . . .195 

70. Cutting timothy hay. (International Harvester Company) 199 

71. Plots of timothy at Cornell University. (Plant Breeding 

Department) 200 

72. Kentucky blue-grass. (Agronomy Department, Ohio Station) 202 

73. Redtop. (Agronomy Department, Ohio Station) . . 207 

74. Orchard grass in full bloom 210 

75. Brome-grass. (Agronomy Department, Ohio Station) . 213 

76. Meadow fescue. (Agronomy Department, Ohio Station) . 216 

77. Common and Siberian millet 222 

78. German millet 223 

79. Broom-corn millet 224 

80. Barnyard millet 225 

81 Cutting sorghum. (Agronomy Department, Kansas Agri- 
cultural College) . . . • . . . .231 

82. Heading kafir in Texas. (Professor A. G. McCall) . . 235 



XVIU 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



(Professor A. G. McCall) 



FIGURE 

83. Dwarf and standard broonicorn 

84. Flowers of alfalfa ........ 

85-86. Diagram of typical legume flower and insect pollination 

87. Applying lime to a field. {Coimtry Gentleman) 

88. Nodules on roots of soy beans. (Extension Department, 

Ohio State University) . 

89. Red clover 

90. Effects of lime on growth of red clover 

91. Cutting clover hay .... 

92. Using the tedder on a heavy hay crop 

93. Rolling down clover. (Agronomy Department, Ohio Station) 

94. Trailing stem of white clover. (Agronomy Department, 

Ohio Station) ....... 

95. Alsike clover. (Agronomy Department, Ohio Station) 

96. Using the side-delivery rake. (Agronomy Department 

Ohio Station) ..... 

97. Curing clover hay in the cock 

98. A crimson clover plant. {Country Gentleman) 

99. An alfalfa plant. (Ohio Station) 

100. Arrangement of leaflets in alfalfa and clover 

101. Alfalfa roots. (Professor A. G. McCall) . 

102. Stacking alfalfa in New Mexico. (Professor A. G. McCall) 

103. Canvas covers on alfalfa cocks. (Agronomy Department, 

Ohio Station) ....... 

104. Farmers examining alfalfa test plots at the Ohio Station 

105. Vetch plant showing flowers, leaves, and tendrils 

106. A sample of hairy vetch. {Country Gentleman) 

107. A field of vetch in full bloom. {Successful Farming) 

108. A sweet clover plant. (Extension Department, Ohio State 

University) . . . ' . 

109. Effects of lime on the growth of sweet clover 

110. Sweet clover growing by the roadside. (Extension Depart 

ment, Ohio State University) .... 

111. A soy bean plant ....... 

112. A field of soy beans 

113. Soy beans growing with corn. (Extension Department 

Ohio State University) ...... 

114. Pods of cowpeas and soy beans ..... 

115. Cowpeas and corn. ( Country Gentleman) 



PAGE 

236 
241 
242 
247 

250 
255 
257 

261 
262 
265 

267 
269 

270 
271 
273 

278 
279 
280 
289 

291 
293 
295 
296 
297 

298 
299 

300 
306 
307 

311 
313 
314 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix 



116. A field of cowpeas. {Successful Farming) . . . 316 

117. Canada field peas . 317 

118. Peanuts 321 

119. A sugar beet 325 

120. Foreigners working in a beet field. (C. S. Wheeler) . . 328 

121. Pasturing hogs on rape ....... 334 

122. A cotton plant. (Alabama Station) 337 

123. Production of cotton 345 

124. Seed pods of flax 352 

125. A bundle of flax and fiber. (Farmers' Bulletin 274) . . 353 

126. Harvesting potatoes. (H. C. Ramsower) .... 364 

127. A potato digger. (H. C. Ramsower) ..... 365 

128. Hauling hay to market. (Extension Department, Ohio 

State University) 372 

129. Examining seeds for purity ...... 374 

130. Testing grass and legume seeds ...... 375 

131. A typical country elevator. (Grain Standardization Depart- 

ment, United States Department of Agriculture) . . 382 

132. A terminal elevator in Chicago 385 

133. Inspecthig grain at Chicago ...... 388 

134. A seaboard elevator. (Dr. C. E. Leighty) . . . .393 

135. Unloading grain at a Danish port. (Dr. C. E. Leighty) . 394 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTIOI^ 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTORY VIEW 

All the plants that grow on the earth are called, col- 
lectively, the plant kingdom. The plant kingdom is made 
up of innumerable forms of vegetation, ranging in size 
from the tiny one-celled plant, so small that it cannot be 
seen with the unaided eye, to the giant trees of the forest. 
Between these two extremes are to be found myriads of 
intermediate forms, the algae that grow in ponds and 
streams, the mosses and lichens that grow on the trees 
and rocks, the ferns of the woods, the grasses and grains of 
the fields, the wonderful shrubs and plants with which we 
beautify our yards and gardens, and numerous other 
similar and related forms. Plants differ not only in their 
size, structure and habitat, but also in the kinds of food 
that they are able to use and in their usefulness to man. 
Some forms of vegetation are able to secure their food 
from the inanimate world in the form of chemical elements 
or compounds in the soil and in the atmosphere, and by 
certain life processes are able to convert them into forms 
useful in building up their own structures. Other forms 
are not able to do this, but must derive a part of their 
food from compounds that have already been incorporated 
in the bodies of other plants or animals. To the former 
class belong most of our cultivated plants, while in the 

B 1 . 



2 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

latter class are to be found many of the plants that injure 
and produce disease in the cultivated forms. To this 
group belong the rusts and smuts that attack the grains, 
the blights and wilts that lay low the vegetables, and many 
other injurious, as well as some useful forms. 

In their usefulness to man, plants vary greatly. They 
are of service to him principally in furnishing food, cloth- 
ing, and shelter. They are also a factor in many industries, 
the products of which supply in some form or other the 
needs of man. Every industry, in fact, no matter how far 
removed from the growing of plants it may seem to be, is 
either directly or indirectly dependent upon it. The 
fundamental basis of any industry is to be found in the 
food supply of the people who engage in it, and of the 
people who consume the commodities produced. Men 
derive their supply of food principally from two sources, 
plants and animals. The animals, however, are either 
directly or indirectly dependent upon plants, so that, in 
the last analysis, the food supply of the nations of the 
world and consequently the existence of all the industries 
of the world are dependent upon the production of plants. 
Not all plants, however, are useful to man, many of the 
most troublesome diseases that attack the crops being 
plant growths. 

1. Classification of plants. — Because the plant king- 
dom is made up of these multitudes of widely differing 
forms, it has been necessary for botanists, for purposes of 
study, to classify them into various groups. This branch 
of the study is called systematic botany, and has occupied 
the attention of botanists for many years. The classifica- 
tion has to do with the arranging of plants into groups, 
based upon their similarity of parts, — their evident 
relationship. While it is not necessary for the general 



INTBODUCTOTtY VIEW 3 

student of field crops to go exhaustively into the subject 
of systematic botany, a knowledge of its principles is 
necessary to a satisfactory understanding of field crops 
and of the terms employed in any discussion of them. 

2. Species. — The grouping can best be understood 
perhaps if we start with the individual.^ If a seed of 
Kentucky blue-grass is planted, it will with favorable 
conditions for growth develop into a plant, which in time 
will produce seeds for its own perpetuation. If these 
seeds in turn are planted, they will give rise to other plants, 
which in time will produce seeds, and so on. Within a 
few years a large number of plants will result, the progeny 
of a single blue-grass seed. A careful examination of these 
plants will show that, while they are very much alike, slight 
variations occur in size, form and color of their various 
parts. While these variations may occur, the plants 
on the whole resemble each other very closely, having 
descended from a common ancestor. These plants and 
all others, w^ierever they may be found, resembling them 
so closely that they might well have come from the individ- 
ual plant of which we spoke, are placed in a group called 
a species. A species, therefore, is made up of individuals 
so near alike that they may be regarded as having come 
from a common ancestor. 

3. Variety. — As has been noted, slight variations occur 
among the individual members of a species. Sometimes 
variation in form, size or structure of a plant or its parts 
is such as to make it more useful to man than the other 
members of the species. Frequently man selects plants 
possessing some superior quality and develops from them, 
by using their seeds for perpetuation, a group of plants 

1 Method of presenting classification of plants adapted from Percival's 
Agricultural Botany. 



4 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

that varies slightly in some one or more characteristics 
from the other individuals in the species. Such a group of 
plants is called a variety. A variety, therefore, is a 
group of individuals within a species that possesses 
some variation from the species as a whole. As yet no 
varieties have been developed from Kentucky blue-grass, 
but examples of varieties in abundance may be had from 
the grain crops, such as corn and wheat. Thus we find 
many varieties of corn, such as Reid Yellow Dent, 
Boone County White, Calico, and many others. These 
varieties have some character or characters that dis- 
tinguish them from corn in general. The color of the 
grain, the size of the ear and plants, the length of season 
required for growth, and similar variations are distin- 
guishing variety characteristics.^ Varieties, however, are 
not so different from the other individuals of the species 
as to form a separate and distinct species by themselves. 
Thus Reid Yellow Dent and Boone County White, and 
all other varieties of corn, are members of the corn species 
Zea Mays. 

4. Genus. — If one examines closely all kinds of 
grasses, it will be found that certain kinds bear a close 
resemblance to Kentucky blue-grass, in the general appear- 
ance, manner of growth, structure of parts, the arrange- 
ment of flowers, and the like.^ Thus such species as 
Canada blue-grass. Rough-stalk meadow-grass, and 

iln presenting the scheme of classification of plants, the author has 
used such general terms as " manner of growth," and " general appearance" 
in referring to varietal and generic characteristics, viewing the subject 
from the agronomist's point of view, as the discussion for elementary 
students of the plants with which he deals does not necessitate going 
into the intricate distinctions employed by the botanist. The term 
" variety " is used in the agronomic sense, not as a sub-species as the 
botanists use it. 



INTRODUCTORY VIEW 5 

Wood's meadow-grass so closelj^ resemble Kentucky 
blue-grass as to establish with it a close relationship. 
Species which are thus closely related are placed in a 
group called a genus. A genus, therefore, is a group 
of closely related species. 

5. Naming of plants. — For convenience in describing 
and identifying the various species that comprise a genus, 
and to distinguish the various genera, it has been necessar}^ 
to name plants in such a way as to indicate the species 
and genus to which they belong. The botanical or scien- 
tific name of a plant is composed of two Latin words, 
the first of which is the name of the genus and the second 
that of the species. Thus Kentucky blue-grass is known 
as Poa 'pratensis, Canada blue-grass as Poa co7npressa, 
Rough-stalked meadow-grass as Poa trivialis, and Wood's 
meadow-grass as Poa nemoralis. Varieties of farm crops 
are not given Latin names, but frequently are named for the 
man who is responsible for their development, as Reid 
Yellow Dent corn, or sometimes for the section of the 
country in which they were developed, as Boone County 
White, or by some other distinguishing name, such as Pride 
of the North, Rust-proof, Medium Green, and the like. 

6. The family. — On observing the pasture and meadow 
grasses, one will almost immediately note their similarity 
and general appearance, manner of growth, shape of leaves, 
character of stems, and other characters. It may be seen, 
however, that this resemblance is not close enough to group 
them all in the same genus, but that the various genera are 
similar and may be classed together in a larger group, 
which is called the family. Thus the meadow and pasture 
grasses together with other grasses may all be included 
in a large group or family, called the Gramineae or grass 
family. The family group may include genera of con- 



6 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

siderable variation in size or other characters ; thus 
oats, wheat, barley, and even corn, each of which belongs 
to a different genus, are all members of the grass family. 
But the variation between oats and the meadow grasses 
like timothy is not so great as would appear without 
examination of the plants themselves. Examination will 
reveal the similarity in the character of growth, shape, and 
structure of the leaves, stem, and flowers. The nearness 
of their relationship will become more evident if one of 
them is compared with a species of another family, such 
as one of the clovers. Immediately a great dissimilarity 
between these will be noticed in the leaves, stem, roots, 
and flowers. 

7. Orders, classes, and divisions. — As genera and 
families have been formed, so are the closely related 
families grouped into orders. Orders with similar charac- 
ters are grouped into classes, and similar classes form 
divisions. The division represents the largest group of 
the plant kingdom. 

8. Divisions. — The plant kingdom has been divided into 
four great divisions, namely, Thallophytes, Bryophytes, 
Pteridophytes, and Spermatophytes. The Thallophytes 
and Bryophytes comprise the lower forms of plants ; the 
algae, fungi, and bacteria belonging in the former group, 
and the liverworts and mosses in the latter. The plants of 
these two divisions have neither true stems nor leaves, nor 
do they produce flowers and seeds. The Pteridophytes 
include the ferns and related plants. The plants of this 
division have stems and leaves, but do not produce true 
flowers or seeds. These three great divisions of the plant 
kingdom, Thallophytes, Bryophytes, and Pteridophytes, 
are often grouped together into the " flowerless plants." 
The one remaining group, namely, the Spermatophytes, 



INTRODUCTORY VIEW 7 

includes all of the seed-producing plants. To this group 
belong almost all of the cultivated plants, and it is by far 
the most important division in its relation to mankind. 
The Thallophytes, however, are of considerable impor- 
tance to man in that within its membership are to be 
found the bacteria, both useful and harmful, and also the 
numerous plant diseases. The farmer, therefore, is eco- 
nomically interested chiefly in only two of the great 
divisions of the vegetable kingdom, the Thallophytes and 
the Spermatophytes. 

The two classes of Spermatophytes are the Gymno- 
sperms and the Angiosperms. The Gymnosperms include 
those plants the seeds of which are naked or not inclosed, 
and are formed on the outside of a modified leaf. A 
large number of the Gymnosperms are coniferous or cone- 
bearing trees, such as the pine, cedars, yews, and similar 
plants. The Angiosperms include those plants whose 
seeds are inclosed in pod- or sac-like structures. To this 
group belong almost all of the cultivated plants. The 
Angiosperms may be divided into two sub-classes, namely, 
the Dicotyledons and the Monocotyledons. The dicoty- 
ledonous plants may be distinguished by the presence 
of two cotyledons or seed leaves, while the monocoty- 
ledons have but one. Both dicotyledonous and monocoty- 
ledonous plants are to be found in our cultivated forms. 
The Leguminosse, to which belong the clovers, peas, and 
beans, is an example of the former, while the Graminese, 
or grass family, to which belong the grasses and grains, is 
an example of the latter. 

9. Length of life. — Based upon their length of life, 
plants may be divided into annuals, biennials, and peren- 
nials. An annual is one that lives only during one growing 
season. A biennial is one that requires two growing 



8 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

seasons to complete the life cycle, no seeds being produced 
during the first season, but only leaves, stems, and roots. 
The seed is produced the second season. Perennials 
are plants that live for more than two years. Some 
perennials, such as alsike clover, live but a short time, 
three or four years or so, while other perennials, such as 
alfalfa and blue-grass, live for many years. Some annuals 
utilize parts of two growing seasons, instead of making 
all their growth in one season. An example is winter 
wheat, which makes a partial growth during the fall and 
completes its growth the next year. Such plants are 
called winter annuals. 

10. Cultivated plants. — The flowering plants, includ- 
ing both monocotyledons and dicotyledons, of which 
there are a great number, and which are found in all 
parts of the world where plants exist, may be divided into 
the cultivated and uncultivated plants. However, some 
plants that are cultivated in one part of the world may 
grow wild in other lands. Of the great number of flowering 
plants, species of over 200 families are cultivated by man. 
These include those cultivated for their flowers, fruit, stem 
and leaves, roots, tubers, grain and fiber. The cultivated 
plants may be grouped into two general classes, horticul- 
tural plants and field plants. Horticultural plants are 
the fruits and vegetables. Field plants are those plants 
grown in fields for their stems, leaves, roots, tubers, fiber, 
or seeds. 

11. Field crops. — Field crops may be defined as those 
plants grown in cultivated fields under a somewhat exten- 
sive system of culture. Horticultural crops, on the 
other hand, are those plants grown in comparatively small 
areas under systems of intensive culture. This is not a 
hard and fast distinction, however, since such crops as 



INTRODUCTORY VIEW 



the sugar beets, while considered as field crops, are grown 
under rather intensive systems of culture. Tobacco, 
also, is a field crop that requires intensive culture, while 
on the other hand, vegetables and fruits are frequently 
grown in comparatively large areas. The student of 
field crops is interested in the study of all plants grown as 
field crops, and in their culture, harvesting, storing, market, 
and uses. Closely re- 
lated to the study of 
field crops are the 
problems of soil fer- 
tility. Frequently 
these two subjects 
are grouped under 
the same term, agron- 
omy, which means 
culture of the fields. 
The agronomist, 
therefore, may be a 
student or an inves- 
tigator of problems 
relating to both soil 
fertility and farm crops, or he may confine his attention 
more especially to one or the other of these two branches. 
12. Classification of field crops. — For convenience 
in study and in describing general methods of culture, 
the various field crops may be grouped into several classes. 
The classification of the subject which will be followed in 
this book divides them into grain, forage, fiber, root, and 
related crops, and miscellaneous crops. In this classifi- 
cation the grouping of the crops is based in part upon 
the most important parts of the plants, and in part upon 
the uses made of them. This method of classification, 




Fig. 1. — Comparative value of crops in 
the United States. 



10 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

as indeed any method that might be employed, is more or 
less general and several irregularities occur in it. Thus 
the grain crops are usually grown for their grain, but 
frequently the straw is used for forage, and sometimes the 
entire plant is so used. Sometimes, too, a crop may be 
grown for one purpose in one place, and for another use 
in another locality. Thus flax, which has been grouped 
with the fiber crops, is grown in some places entirely for 
its seeds, in which case it should, perhaps, be grouped 
with the grain crops. The millets are likewise, in some 
countries, grown primarily for their seed, but in this 
country they are generally used for forage. In a general 
way, however, the grouping here followed will indicate 
the most common usage of the crops, but mention will 
usually be made of any other uses to which they may be 
put. The relative importance of the various crops is 
shown in the diagram. 

13. The grain crops. — Grain crops are crops that 
are grown primarily for their seed or grain. This term 
is more inclusive than the term " cereals," which is defined 
as any grass grown for its edible grain. The term grain 
crops is used to include all crops grown for their grains, 
regardless of their botanical relationship. The cereals, 
however, are by far the most important grain crops, 
and if it were not for the cereals, this group would have a 
small membership and a rank of little consequence, instead 
of being, as it now is, the most valuable and useful group 
of field crops. 

14. The forage crops. — Forage crops are those 
crops grown primarily for forage, which may be defined 
as roughage or bulky feed for domestic animals. The 
forage crops have great bulk and low feeding value per 
unit of weight as compared with the grain crops. Forage 



IN TROD UCTO U Y VIE W 



11 



crops may be cut and dried before feeding, as is the case 

with hay or stover, or they may be fed green, either by 

allowing the animals to graze upon them, or by cutting 

and feeding them directly from the field. The straw 

of the grain crops is frequently used for forage. Forage 

crops, however, usually mean the crops in which the 

entire above-ground 

part of the plant is 

used. Almost all of 

the important forage 

crops are included 

in the membership of 

two botanical families, 

namely, the Gramin- 

ese and Legumin- 

os2e, or as the two 

groups are commonly 

called, the '' grasses " 

and '' legumes." The 

forage crops rank next Fig. 2 

to the grains in value 

and acreage, and if native pasture is included, the 

acreage is greater than that of the grain crops. 

15. The fiber crops. — Fiber crops are those crops 
grown for their fiber, which is used in the making of 
textiles, ropes, twine, and the like. Cotton is by far 
the most important of this group of plants, and its great 
acreage and value give to the fiber crops the third rank 
in this respect. 

16. The root and related crops. — Root crops are 
those crops grown for their enlarged tap roots. Several 
other crops with thickened leaves and stems which re- 
semble the true root crops in their composition and 




Six leading crops of the United 
States. 



12 FIELD CHOP PRODUCTION 

feeding values, and also in the general methods of their 
culture, are usually included in this class. A more 
detailed explanation will be found in the introductory 
paragraph of the chapter on root crops. 

17. Miscellaneous crops. — Under this head are grouped 
all farm crops not included in any of the preceding 
classes. As might be expected, these crops vary greatly 
in their botanical relationship, culture, and uses. The 
two principal crops of this group are the potato, which 
is grown for the tubers, and tobacco, which is grown for 
its leaves and is used as a stimulant. The latter is not 
included in this book. 

18. Definition of terms. — Several terms are employed 
in field-crop literature, both in text-books and in the 
agricultural press, that should be defined. Some of 
them refer to a special use made of a crop, which 
may be a member of any of the general groups previously 
discussed, but usually belongs to the grain or forage 
crops. 

A soiling crop is one that is cut green and fed green 
directly from the field. Thus corn, if it is cut and thrown 
over the fence to animals, or fed to them in the feed lot, 
becomes a soiling crop. 

A green manure crop is one that is grown to plow 
under or to disk into the soil to improve the physical 
condition of the latter, and to increase its fertility. 

A cover crop is one that is seeded so as to make a growth 
to cover or protect the soil in the field or orchard during 
the winter. 

A catch crop is a crop sown between two regular crops. 
Thus, if rye is seeded in the corn at the time of the last 
cultivation, and the field is seeded to oats or some other 
crop in the spring, the rye crop may be defined as a catch 



INTRODUCTORY VIEW 18 

crop. It may at the same time serve as a cover crop, 
or as a green manure crop, or for pasture, or for all three 
purposes. 

A silage crop is one gro^vn for the silo. Maize is the 
leading crop grown for this use. 



CHAPTER II 
CROP ROTATION 

By J. F. Barker 

New York Agricultural Experiment Station 

When any one crop is grown continuously on the same 
field for a number of years, the average yield is almost 
sure to be less than if that crop had been grown in a suit- 
able rotation with other crops. Thus if corn, oats, wheat, 
and hay are grown on a farm, the land devoted to these 
crops may be divided into five fields of equal size and 
the four crops changed each year in regular order from 
one field to another, except that hay would always be 
grown on a field two years in succession. In this way 
better average yields would result than if each field were 
devoted to one crop continuously. This principle is 
recognized in greater or less extent by nearly all practical 
farmers ; but the following epitomized results of carefully 
conducted field experiments bearing upon the subject 
furnish the concrete evidence necessary to a definite 
understanding of this principle. Such results are of more 
significance than any amount of theory or generalized 
experience. It should be said, in explanation, that com- 
parisons of rotative and continuous cropping are here 
made between adjoining or near-by fields rather than 
adjoining plots. The figures therefore are probably 
not so closely comparable as in fertilizer tests. But con- 

14 



CROP ROTATION 



15 



sidering that at each station the crops in rotation and 
continuous cropping are grown on the same type of soil 
having practically the same previous treatment, and taking 
into account the length of time the experiments have been 
in progress, the comparisons are unquestionably reliable 
to a close degree. 

19. Rotation experiments at Rothamsted. — In the 
Rothamsted experiments, wheat grown in a four-year 
rotation gave during sixty years nearly double the aver- 
age yield per acre of wheat grown continuously. In the 
case of barley the difference is also very great, but the 
yields of barley in rotation have fallen off more rapidly 
than wheat, owing to the latter crop coming directly 
after the clover and so getting the greater benefit of the 
clover sod. 

Rothamsted Experiment Station, Rothamsted, England 
(60 Years of Field Experiments) 





Wheat 
Bu. PER Acre 


Barley 
Bu. PER Acre 




First 
20 yr. 


Second 
20 yr. 


Third 
20 yr. 


First 
20 yr. 


Second 
20 yr. 


Third 
20 yr. 


Rotation : turnips, bar- 
ley, clover, wheat 

Rotation : turnips, bar- 
ley, fallow, wheat 

Continuous culture . 


30 

35 
16 


21 

23 
14 


24 

23 
12 


38 

37 
20 


22 

23 
13 


14 

16 
10 



The yields in continuous culture have fallen off most 
rapidly during the first few years of the experiment, for 
at the outset the land devoted to continuous culture was 



16 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

producing fully as well as that used for the rotation exper- 
iment. During the last fifty years the falling off under 
continuous culture has been comparatively little and has 
now reached a low level at which it may be sustained 
almost indefinitely. This is what usually takes place 
under any poor system of farming ; yields fall off rapidly 
at first and soon reach a low level below which they are 
not easily reduced. Comparisons here have been made 
only between the unfertilized plots in the two systems of 
cropping. By means of commercial fertilizers the yields 
of wheat and barley, even in continuous cropping, 
have been maintained at a high level. But the 
necessary quantity of fertilizer has been so great that 
the increased yields resulting from their use have not 
paid the cost. Also, when the fertilizers are used, the 
crops are now so dependent upon them that if they are 
discontinued, even for a single year, the yields drop 
very low. 

20. Rotation experiments in Iowa and Illinois. — A 
most striking example of the rapid decline in produc- 
tion under continuous cropping is shown in the experiments 
with corn growing at both the Illinois and Iowa experiment 
stations. In both cases the fields are located on typical 
dark brown silt loam prairie soil which at the outset yields 
without fertilization 70 to 80 bushels of corn per acre. 
The Illinois experiments show that after 10 or 12 years of 
continuous corn culture the yields of corn on this soil are 
reduced to about 35 bushels per acre. Under a rotation 
of corn and oats, which is a poor rotation, but better than 
a single crop, the yield is 62 bushels. Under a four-year 
rotation of corn, corn, oats, and clover the yield is 66 
bushels. The corresponding figures for a similar experi- 
ment on a smaller scale show still further reduced yields, 



CROP ROTATION 



17 



but the reduction in the last 16 years has been going on 
much slower than at first. 

University of Illinois Experiment Field at Urbana, III. 
Typical Corn Belt Prairie Soil 

(Three years' averages : bushels per acre) 



Crop Years 


Crop System 


Experiments in 


Experiments in 






Progress 13 yr. 


Progress 29 \ h. 


1905-6-7 


Corn every year 


35 bu. 


27 bu. 


1903-5-7 


Corn and oats 








rotation 


62 bu. 


46 bu. 


1901-4-7 


Corn, oats, clover 








rotation 


66 bu. 


58 bu. 



Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. 
Typical Corn Belt Prairie Soil 

(Figures give bushels per acre) 

Rotation of corn, corn, oats, clover, compared with continuous 

corn 



Corn in rotation 
Continuous cul- 
ture .... 



1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


75 


87 


69 


57 


70 


54 


60 


44 


74 


73 


53 


47 


53 


31 


46 


32 



1913 



60 
47 



The results from nine years of experiments at the Iowa 
station are even more striking than those from Illinois. 
They show that, while each system started out with a 
yield of approximately 75 bushels of corn per acre, con- 
tinuous cropping never after the first year produced as 
much by ten bushels per acre as in a four-year rotation 
c 



18 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

of corn, corn, oats, and clover. Such results as these, 
obtained on typical corn belt prairie soil of proverbial 
fertility, furnish overwhelming evidence against the one 
crop system. 

21. Rotation experiments in Ohio. — Results from the 
Ohio Station furnish much additional evidence on the 
subject under discussion; they also throw light on 
certain phases of the question with which the others 
do not deal. In the experiments at each of the other 
three stations the soil at the outset was in a good 
state of productiveness, yielding without fertilization, 
30 to 35 bushels of wheat or 70 to 80 bushels of corn. 
At the Ohio Station, however, at the beginning of the 
experiments the soil was in a badly run down condition. 
It had been subjected for a half century or more to an 
exhaustive system of farming. Also, this land in its 
virgin state was not so productive as the prairie soils of 
Iowa and Illinois and was less durable than the Rotham- 
sted lands. Crop yields, therefore, being already reduced 
to rather low figures, there has not been the opportunity 
for further rapid reductions under continuous cropping. 
However, on unfertilized land the average acre yields for 
the last five of the 18 years show that continuous cropping 
has reduced the yields as compared with the rotation in 
use as follows : Corn from 26 down to 8 bushels per acre, 
oats from 29 to 15 bushels, and wheat from 14 to 6 bushels. 

It is worth while to make a comparison of the two 
systems under fertilizer treatment. There being no 
plots in either of the two systems which have identical 
fertilizer treatment, certain ones have been selected having 
the same kind of treatment but in different amounts, and 
the larger applications being on the continuous culture 
plats. This makes the comparison all the more striking 



CROP ROTATION 



19 



since the more heavily fertilized crops under continuous 
culture give lower yields. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potassium to the amounts indicated in the table are applied 
in the form of nitrate of soda, dried blood, acid phosphate, 
and muriate of potash. In the rotation system the amount 
indicated is applied only once in five years and is divided 

Ohio Experiment Fields, Wooster 

Experiments in progress 18 years, 1894—1911. Rotation of corn, 
oats, wheat, hay, hay, compared with continuous culture 







Corn 


Oats 


Wheat 




First 
Syr. 


Last 
5yr. 


First 
5yr. 


Last 
5yr. 


First 
5 yr. 


Last 
5yr. 


Treatment for each five-year 


period 

108 lb.' K." 


Rotation 


Unfertilized . . . 
38 lb. N., 30 lb. P., 
8 tons manure . 


31 

36 
40 


26 
45 

47 


30 
38 
32 


29 

48 
39 


8 
14 
12 


14 

28 




, 40 lb. K. 




Treatment for each yea,r 


Continuous Culture 


Unfertilized . . . 
24 lb. N., 10 lb. P. 
2^ tons manure 


26 
45 
37 


8 
35 
18 


28 
42 
31 


15 
24 
23 


10 
20 
13 


6 
22 
17 



between the corn and wheat. In the single crop system 
the application shown is applied every year. The com- 
parative yields for the last five years are as follows, the 
larger being always for the rotation system : corn, 45 and 
35 bushels per acre, oats, 48 and 24 bushels, and wheat, 
28 and 22 bushels. Comparing the rotation plots receiv- 



20 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

ing 8 tons of manure in five years with continuous culture 
plots receiving \2\ tons in the same length of time, we 
have the following yields, the larger always in favor of 
the rotation system : corn, 47 and 18 bushels, oats, 39 
and 23, and wheat, 26 and 17. Certainly here is abundant 
data to show that even with liberal fertilizing crops can- 
not be grown to good advantage under a one crop system. 
22. Why rotation gives better yields. — In studying 
natural phenomena it is good practice first to make 
observations and gather data and then try to discover the 
principles which underlie the working of these phenomena. 
Having obtained definite data to the effect that a rotation 
system of cropping affords better yield than continuous 
culture, we next ask the question, why? 

(1) Cultivated crops rapidly deplete the organic matter 
and nitrogen of the soil. Cultivation favors rapid oxida- 
tion and destruction of organic matter with the consequent 
rapid liberation of nitrogen. Then, too, a cultivated crop 
leaves very little in the way of roots and stubble to be 
added to the stock of organic matter in the soil. Erosion, 
both by wind and water, is much more rapid when a few 
inches of the surface is kept loose by cultivation. As the 
organic matter and nitrogen is found mainly in the surface 
soil, it is rapidly lost when erosion is accelerated. Aside 
from this loss, erosion is, of course, wasteful of the best 
part of the soil. 

(2) Single cropping favors insects and weeds. Any crop 
grown on the same ground year after year encourages the 
presence of such insects and in some cases such weeds as 
prey especially on that crop. This is one of the worst 
troubles in continuous corn growing ; the corn root worm 
develops badly under those conditions. In the continuous 
culture of wheat at the Rothamsted station the ground at 



CROP ROTATION 21 

one time became so foul with weeds that it was necessary 
to devote a year to fallowing before another crop could be 
grown. 

(3) Legume crops help out on the nitrogen supply. 
A rotation of crops gives an opportunity to include some 
legume, especially clover or alfalfa, which will leave the 
soil richer in nitrogen than before the crop was grown. 
If one-fourth or more of the rotation is devoted to one of 
these crops and if a part of the crop, as well as the roots 
and stubble, are turned under, and perhaps also an occa- 
sional catch crop of some other legume is plowed under, 
it is possible to supply in this way sugicient nitrogen for 
all the other crops in the rotation, and thus the supply 
of this element be maintained indefinitely. It must be 
remembered, however, that legumes as well as any other 
plants can feed upon the nitrogen already in the soil and 
in fact always take a part of their supply in this way, so 
that if the crop is entirely removed and only the roots and 
stubble i^lowed under, the soil is seldom being enriched in 
nitrogen and may, in fact, be somewhat reduced. Clover, 
for example, is known to take, under average soil condi- 
tions, about one-third of its nitrogen from the atmosphere. 
Now the roots and stubble of clover seldom amount to 
more than one-third of the crop, and, as nitrogen is con- 
stantly being lost from the soil by leaching, it may often 
happen that a clover crop in the rotation does not increase 
the nitrogen supply at all, though, of course, it does not 
deplete this supply to the extent of a non-legume crop. 

(4) Heavy sods supply organic matter. Crops such as 
grasses, and clovers, which keep the surface soil well 
filled with a mass of fibrous roots, increase materially the 
organic matter content of the soil. When this sod is 
plowed under, the soil is much benefited in respect to 



22 FIELD. CROP PBOBUCTION 

organic matter ; also, the decaying roots render the soil 
looser and more friable, 

(5) A rotation alternates deep and shallow rooted 
crops. Crops that send their roots down deeply help 
to prevent a compact condition of the subsoil and so 
maintain better drainage and a better moisture reservoir. 
Also, by feeding on deeper layers of soil the total supply 
of plant food is more economically utilized. It is, there- 
fore, advantageous to both the shallow and deeply rooted 
crops that they should occasionally alternate with one 
another. 

(6) Influence of toxic substances. It is probably true 
that many or all crops excrete or leave in the soil certain 
organic compounds which ar« more or less injurious to 
succeeding crops of the same kind, but are less harmful or 
perhaps not at all so to other crops. In certain instances, 
however, a crop is thought to exert a more toxic effect 
on another growing with it than on itself. The Duke 
of Bedford and Spencer U. Pickering, working at the 
Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm near Bedford, England, 
report experiments which seem to prove that grass has a 
very toxic effect on fruit trees. They demonstrate that 
this effect is entirely separate from that of robbing the 
trees of available plant food and moisture. The United 
States Bureau of Soils has investigated the subject of 
toxic compounds in the soil to an elaborate extent. It 
has shown clearly that when the water extract from a 
poor soil is shaken with some insoluble absorbing material 
such as finely powdered charcoal and then filtered, the 
filtrate will grow better plants (in aqueous solution) 
than the original extract. Other experiments show that 
the extract from certain poor soils will not grow plants so 
well for the first few weeks as distilled water. Wheat 



CROP ROTATION 23 

seedlings do not grow so well the second time in the same 
solution, although the nutrient constituents may be 
maintained at the same concentration. Certain organic 
compounds which have been isolated from the soil and 
their formulae determined are demonstrated to produce a 
toxic effect when added to a nutrient solution in which 
young plants are growing. Those who have investigated 
this subject most thoroughly believe that the accumula- 
tion of toxic compounds in the soil is an important factor 
in the rapid decline of crops growing continuously on the 
same land. 

Aside from the question of crop yields there are other 
reasons along the lines of economy and convenience which 
make it preferable to rotate a series of crops on dif- 
ferent divisions of the farm rather than devote separate 
fields to the growth of each crop continuously. Yet it 
is seldom important to follow year after year a rigid rota- 
tion. In fact, if a four or six year rotation is adopted, one 
is likely, for some good reason or another, to make some 
little change in his plans before more than one cycle of 
the rotation has passed. With the frequent change in 
value of crops and knowledge of important new crops 
come changes in the rotation system. It is important 
always to have a well-planned rotation under way, but 
one should not hesitate to make changes that are in the 
line of progress, to substitute a different crop for one that 
has started off poorly, or occasionally increase the acreage 
of a money crop at the expense of a less profitable one, 
even though by such changes he may never actually 
complete a perfect cycle of the rotation planned. 

23. Planning a rotation. — Any farm of good size 
may have two, three, or more different rotations in prog- 
ress, having a series of fields set apart for each rotation. 



24 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

In planning these rotations the first thing to consider is 
the crops one desires to raise. This will be based upon the 
crops most profitable for the locality, and best adapted 
to the soil in question, and the preferences of the land 
owner. These crops are then arranged into one or more 
suitable rotations in such a way as best to meet the prob- 
lems of maximum yield, economy of labor, and, in short, 
greatest net profit ; considering not merely the present 
but a period of at least several years. It may very often 
happen that to plan a satisfactory rotation one will find 
it advisable to include for the sake of the rotation a crop 
which in itself is not especially desirable or profitable. 
Thus some farmers say they would not grow wheat except 
that it makes a convenient crop with which to seed down 
to meadow or pasture. In arranging crops in a rotation 
some of the following principles may well be kept in mind : 

A rotation should usually contain at least one legume 
crop, a sod producing crop, and a cultivated crop. Other 
crops may be worked in with these as desirable. 

A long rotation with a great variety of crops may be the 
best from a fertility standpoint but is seldom practicable to 
carry out. Usually a rotation of three to six years is most 
suitable. 

Deep-rooted crops should be alternated with shallow 
rooted crops when the latter are to be grown. 

Potatoes do especially well following a clover or alfalfa 
sod or buckwheat stubble. Barnyard manure is best 
applied to some crop a year previous to potatoes rather 
than the same season. 

Corn is a rank feeder and can utilize quantities of coarse 
manure better than most other crops. It does especially 
well on recently turned sod ground. 
■ For a poor soil low in organic matter, a four or five 



CROP ROTATION 25 

year rotation containing two or three years of a sod 
producing legume crop is desirable. A dark colored, 
fertile soil may well grow more cultivated and small 
grain crops. 

Buckwheat or flax are poor crops to precede a small 
grain crop. There is apparently some injurious effect 
produced by these two crops which is entirely separate 
from any question of plant food or physical condition of 
the soil. 

Wheat does well following a cultivated crop and espe- 
cially well if this is a legume such as beans or peas. Oat 
stubble is a good site for wheat if the ground is prepared 
immediately after the oats are off. 

Alfalfa should be sown without a nurse crop. Most 
grasses and clover, if sown in the spring, do best with a 
nurse crop. Wheat, barley, or oats make a good nurse 
crop. 

It is a good plan to arrange a place or two in the rota- 
tion for short time catch crops to be plowed under as 
green manure or source of nitrogen supply. 

24. Rotation does not maintain fertility. — Although 
much may be said m favor of crop rotation, we need to 
guard against the erroneous impression that a systematic 
rotation of crops is in itself sufficient to maintain the 
fertility of the soil and insure good crop yields indefi- 
nitely. This theory has gained acceptance by some and 
has occasionally found expression in magazines and farm 
papers. The advocates of this theory provide only 
that the rotation include crops adapted to the soil in 
question, that some legume be gro^vn, and that good culti- 
vation and drainage be provided. The data given in 
the early part of this chapter is convincing evidence 
against any such teaching. 



26 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

In the four-year rotation at Rothamsted wheat yields 
were not sustained, although that crop immediately fol- 
lowed the clover. Barley, occupying a less favorable 
place in the rotation, declined during 40 years from 38 
to 14 bushels. The decline in yield of turnips and clover 
was even more striking. 

In the Illinois experiments the rich virgin soil of the 
corn belt has under a favorable rotation declined in pro- 
ductiveness during 29 years from more than 70 bushels 
of corn per acre to an average of 58. Even during 13 
years the yields have not been sustained. On the rich 
prairie soils of Iowa corn yields have noticeably declined 
during a period of nine years under a similar rotation. 
At the Ohio station, beginning with a poor, run down soil, 
a favorable five-year rotation has, during a period of 18 
years, somewhat improved the yield of wheat and main- 
tained the production of oats, although the corn crop 
has declined. However, there is no evidence here that 
anything like satisfactory crop yields can be maintained 
by rotation. 

From the Pennsylvania experiment station 25 years of 
crop yields are reported, the rotation being corn, oats, 
wheat, and hay (clover and timothy). Comparing the 
average of the first twelve years with the average of the 
second twelve, we find that where no fertilizer has been 
added the yield of corn has declined from 42 bushels per 
acre for the first period to 28 bushels for the second. 
Oats in this time has dropped from 37 to 25 bushels. 
Wheat has given the low yield of about 13 bushels for 
both periods. Hay has dropped from Ij tons to 1 ton 
per acre. 

All the above are results from carefully conducted experi- 
ments and are fair examples of what a good rotation 



CROP ROTATION 27 

together with good cultivation and tile drainage can do 
towards keeping up soil fertility and maintaining satis- 
factory crop yields. A rotation of crops reduces the 
plant food supply in the soil (excepting nitrogen) even 
more rapidly than the one crop system, and to maintain 
good crop yields under rotation requires the addition of 
mineral fertilizers or the application of liberal amounts of 
farm manure. On the average farm the problem will be 
best solved by using a certain amount of each. But to 
go into this phase of the subject more in detail properly 
belongs to a text-book on soil fertility. 

25. Suggested rotations. — The following are exam- 
ples of rotations commonly recommended or in frequent 
use: 

Corn, oats, clover. 
Corn, wheat, clover. 
Corn, oats, wheat, clover. 
Corn, corn, oats, clover. 
Corn, corn, oats, clover, wheat, clover. 
Corn, oats, wheat, hay, hay (mixed clover and timothy). 
Potatoes, wheat, clover. 
Potatoes, wheat, alfalfa, alfalfa. 
Cowpeas (or soy beans), wheat, hay, hay (mixed). 
Alfalfa 4 years, corn 2 years, oats or wheat 1 or 2 years. 
' Corn, corn, oats, hay (clover and timothy), pasture. 
Oats (or barley), beans, wheat, hay. 
Corn, barley, wheat, clover and timothy 1 or 2 years. 
Rye, hay, potatoes, oats or barley. 
Wheat, hay, potatoes, beans. 
Tobacco, rye or wheat, clover. 

In almost any of the above rotations one or two catch 
crops may be grown and plowed under without adding 



28 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

a year to the rotation. Thus where corn is followed by 
a spring crop such as oats, the farmer may sow cowpeas, 
soy beans, clover, or vetch in the corn at last cultivation 
and plow it under the following spring. Where oats, 
wheat, or barley is followed by a cultivated crop to be put 
in late the next spring, an even better opportunity is offered 
for a catch crop. 



CHAPTER III 

CORN OR MAIZE 

Historians tell us that when Columbus landed in 

Hayti in 1492 he found the natives growing a plant which 

they called Mahiz. So unusual was this plant that ears of 

it were among the numerous presents taken back to Spain 

and presented to the queen as trophies of the new world. 

Columbus called the plant maize after the Indian name, or 

Indian corn, to distinguish it from the corn plants of the 

Old World. Writings of the early explorers of America 

tell us that maize or Indian corn was one of the staples 

of primitive agriculture at the time of their explorations. 

One of the first Spanish explorers to visit Mexico wrote 

extensively about the culture of corn by the native Indian 

tribes, who were growing it around their temporary 

dwellings, making use of it in various ways. The account 

includes a description of several kinds of cakes and breads, 

and also tells of both fermented and unfermented drinks 

made from it. All students of American history are 

familiar with the important part played by this cereal 

in the lives of the early English colonists. That corn was 

grown a long time before the discovery of America by 

Columbus is evident from the discovery of the ears in the 

burial mounds of the prehistoric tribes of Ohio, of the 

cliff dwellers of southwestern United States, and in the 

mounds left by the early tribes that inhabited the west 

29 



30 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

coast of Peru in South America. Almost all authorities 
believe that corn is a native of the Western Hemisphere, 
probably having its origin in what is now Mexico. Com 
was not known in the Old World until after the discovery 
of America. It seems to have been first introduced into 
the countries bordering the Mediterranean, possibly 
by a ship sailing in from America and stopping at the 
various ports of the countries along the coast. From 
these ports it spread into adjoining countries, and car- 
ried with it the name of the country from which it was 
introduced. Thus it was known by such names as Span- 
ish wheat, Italian wheat, Egyptian wheat, Turkish 
corn, Barbary wheat, and other similar titles. The 
names thus received have sometimes led to confusion as 
to its origin. When first introduced into these and adjoin- 
ing countries, it spread rapidly ; but its usefulness does 
not seem to have been appreciated, excepting in Spain 
and Portugal ; elsewhere it was grown as a curiosity until 
the last century. 

26. Botanical characters. — Corn, Zea Mays, is a 
large rank growing plant, belonging to the genus Zea of 
the grass family. It has no close relatives either among 
cultivated or wild grasses, and it is therefore quite different 
from the other familiar cereals as to the structure and 
arrangements of its parts, and in many other respects. 
On account of its sensitiveness to frost, corn cannot be 
planted so that it will make part of its growth in the fall, 
live over the winter like wheat or rye, and complete its 
growth and produce seed the following spring and summer. 
It is therefore called a spring annual. 

27. The roots. — The roots of the corn plant may be 
divided into three separate groups, namely, the temporary, 
the permanent feeding roots, and the brace roots. When the 



CORN OR MAIZE 31 

kernel is placed in the ground, with conditions favorable for 
growth, a root shoot called the hypocotyl rapidly pushes 
downward into the soil. Soon two or three branches grow 
out from the base of the hypocotyl. These are somewhat 
smaller, and usually grow out laterally from the seed. These 
roots with their branches form the temporary root system. 
They make their growth largely from the food that is 
stored up in the kernel, and their function is chiefly that 
of supplying water to the young plant. While the tem- 
porary roots are being formed, the plumule is pushing up 
through the soil and finally unfolds its leaves above the 
ground. About the time the leaves are unfolding, another 
group of roots begins to grow from the lowest node of the 
plumule, usually about one inch below the ground, al- 
though if the soil is cloddy and dried out some distance 
below the surface, the node forms deeper in the soil. 
This, the permanent root system, is formed near the surface 
of the ground, regardless of the depth of planting. Thus 
we see that deep planting will not insure deep root system 
as many are inclined to believe. The roots of the perma- 
nent system grow out laterally for some distance before 
turning downward. This system is not made up of a 
great number of single roots, but rather is it a complex 
group, since each root gives off many branches from which 
in turn spring other branches, and so on until finally the 
last branches are tiny rootlets. Most of the branches are 
in the first 15 to 20 inches of the soil, and only a few are 
sent down deep into the ground. The roots grow very 
rapidly at first, more rapidly than does the plumule. 
Hunt reports a plant only one-half inch high, with root 
and branches measuring 8 inches in length, and one 3 
inches high with root measuring 13 inches in length. So 
rapidly do they grow that under favorable conditions the 



32 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

roots of plants 35 or 40 days old will meet between the 
rows, and when the corn is in tassel, they will reach into 
almost every inch of the upper soil. The depth to which 
the roots will penetrate depends largely upon the position 
of the water table and upon the texture of the soil. In 
loose, fertile soil they have been known to penetrate 5 or 
more feet, and even in clay soils they will extend as far as 
4 feet into the ground. When the permanent root system 
is well started, the temporary system withers and dies, 
since its period of usefulness is ended. 

The brace roots spring from the first, second, third, and 
sometimes from the fourth node above the ground. They 
are so called because their chief function is to form braces 
or props, to prevent the plant from being blown over. 
When wind or rain bends the plants over, brace roots are 
rapidly produced from the side of the node nearest the 
ground, to prevent succeeding storms from laying them 
low. Usually when the plant stands upright, the brace 
roots do not grow very long, if at all, although they some- 
times do when the plant is favored with good growing 
weather, or by very fertile soil. The portion of the brace 
root above the ground is considerably enlarged and is 
dark green in color. Those which enter the ground are 
reduced in size there, and perform the same function as 
the underground roots. 

28. The stem or culm. — The stem of the corn plant, 
unlike that of wheat and oats, is filled with pith. It 
differs also from the culm of the other cereals, in the shape 
of the internodes, which, with the exception of those near 
the top, are slightly flattened or grooved on the side next 
to the leaf sheath. Where an ear is developing, the inter- 
node beside it is greatly flattened, or even becomes curved 
to make further room for the growing ear. Corn stalks 



COBN OR MAIZE 33 

vary greatly in height. Even in the same field we may 
find the plants growing in fertile bottom soil several feet 
taller than those growing on the less fertile soils of the up- 
land or hillside. The growth is likewise influenced by 
the amount of sunshine, rainfall, and length of the growing 
season. Some varieties of corn naturally grow taller than 
others, even when they are grown side by side. Early 
maturing varieties are usually smaller than those maturing 
later. The average height of most varieties is from 8 to 15 
feet, although some small types, such as pop corn and 
sweet corn, grow from 4 to 10 feet high, while some other 
types sometimes reach a height of 20 to 25 feet. 

29. The leaves. — Since corn is a large, rank-growing 
plant, it needs a great expanse of leaf surface to afford 
room for the combining of the necessary amount of the 
elements of plant food required for its growth. Therefore 
the leaves of the corn plant are much broader and longer 
than those of the smaller growing cereals. The width 
of the leaf varies greatly in different types and varieties, 
and with individual plants of the same variety. Continu- 
ous selection of seed for a few years from plants having 
wide leaves has resulted in the production of a wide leafed 
strain, which is well adapted for forage or for use in the 
silo. The number of leaves on a growing plant varies 
from 10 to 20. A leaf grows from each node of the stalk, 
but the lower leaves seldom grow to maturity, since many 
are broken off during cultivation, or they wither and die. 
Usually not more than 12 or 14 are growing at one time. 
One can scarcely realize what a large surface is exposed 
by the leaves of a single corn plant. At the Missouri 
Experiment Station, the exposed surface of twelve growing 
leaves of a single plant was found to be 24 square feet, 
from which it may be seen that the total leaf surface 



3 J: FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

exposed by a field of corn would be several times the area on 
which the plants stand. At maturity about 20 per cent 
of the weight of the plant is leaf, although earlier in the 
period of growth the percentage of leaf is greater. The 
decrease during the ripening period is due in part to loss 
of lower leaves and in part to the transfer of food to the 
developing ear. 

30. The flowers. — Cultivated corn bears its flowers on 
two separate parts of the plant, this feature distinguishing 
it from the other cereals. The male or staminate flowers 
are borne in spikelets arranged on a branched tassel on 
the top of the stalk. The tassel, which is usually from 
5 to 12 inches long, is made up of a central branch, and 
of from eight to ten lateral branches, growing out near the 
base of the central branch. The spikelets each contain 
two flowers, which, when mature, dangle the anthers on 
long filaments over the edge of the glumes, permitting 
the pollen to be spread by the breeze. Have you not often 
wondered why there is always an even number of rows 
on an ear of corn? It is because the female or pistillate 
flowers are borne in spikelets which are arranged in pairs 
on the cob. Each of the spikelets has two flowers, but 
one flower in each does not develop. Thus in reality 
there is but one fertile flower in each spikelet, and since 
the latter are arranged in pairs, two rows of kernels 
develop together. The style or silk extends from the 
ovulary to beyond the end of the husk, bearing a stigma 
covered with a sticky substance to catch the pollen. The 
silks from the lower ovules are the first to appear beyond 
the husk, and therefore are the first to be fertilized, so 
that the first kernels to appear on the ear are at the base 
of the cob. After fertilization has taken place, the style 
withers and dies. In some varieties of corn there may be 



CORN OR MAIZE 



35 



seen a scar on the kernel, showing the former attachment 
of the silk. The number of pollen grains produced by the 
flowers of a single tassel has been estimated at about 18 
millions, or about 9000 pollen grains to each ovule. So 




Fig. 3. — Staminate and pistillate flowers of the corn plant. 

we find that nature has made a liberal provision of pollen 
in order to insure that one grain of the thousand produced 
will effect the fertilization of the ovary. Extremely hot 
winds may so injure the pollen grains as to make them 



36 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

incapable of fertilization, and likewise are heavy rains 
unfavorable, since the water washes the pollen to the 
ground. The corn plant is cross-pollinated or wind- 
pollinated. Self-pollination has been rendered difficult by 
the position of the male and female flowers, the anthers 
being so placed that a light breeze is necessary to spill the 
pollen, which will insure its being carried away to other corn 
plants. Another provision made by nature to prevent 
self-pollination is that the silk almost always matures 
after the pollen of that plant is shed. A single corn plant 
out of reach of pollen from other corn plants usually has 
either a few scattered grains on the ear, or no grains are 
produced at all. 

31. The ear. — The ear is carried on a short shank or 
branch growing from a node between the leaf sheath and 
the culm. The shank is made up of several short inter- 
nodes, from each of which grows a husk, and these, overlap- 
ping, form the covering of the ear. When the shank is 
short, the ear stands upright ; but if it is long, the ear tips 
over and at maturity points downward. In fertile soil or 
in favorable growing seasons, ear shoots may start from 
several nodes, but usually only one or two develop. The 
top one develops first, and if it is removed the one below it 
grows to maturity. Some varieties, especially those grown 
in the southern part of the United States, often produce 
two or more ears per stalk. Most of the varieties grown 
in the Northern States produce but one ear, but in thinly 
planted fields or in favorable seasons, two ears per stalk 
are quite commonly found. There is great variation in 
the size of the ears and in the number of rows of grain. 
The ears vary in length, from one inch in certain varieties 
of pop corn, to as much as 16 inches in some of the larger 
varieties of dent corn. The number of rows of grain varies 



CORN OR MAIZE 37 

from eight in the flint to as many as 24 or more in the 
dent corn. 

32. The kernel. — After fertiUzation has taken place, 
the kernel begins to develop. At first it appears much like 
a water blister, but after a few weeks it has greatly in- 
creased in size and contains a milky fluid. This is called 
the " milk " stage, and at this time it has a sweet taste, 
due to the presence of sugar which is later changed to 
starch. From the milk stage it gradually changes, with 
the ripening of the plant, to the '' dough " stage, and finally 
at maturity it becomes firm and dry. An examination of the 
mature corn kernel will show that it is made up of several 
distinct parts. If the kernel is soaked in warm water for 
half an hour, it can be separated into the tip cap, the 
hull, the aleurone layer and endosperm, and the germ. The 
tip-cap and the hull are the outside coverings of the kernel. 
The tip-cap is located at the tip of the kernel and serves 
to attach it to the cob and also to protect the tip end of 
the germ. The hull is made up of three distinct thin 
layers, which are separated only with difficulty. They 
are composed largely of woody fiber and of gum, which 
keeps the kernel from drying out. The hull and the tip- 
cap taken together make up about 7 per cent of the kernel. 
The aleurone layer, lying directly beneath the hull, is made 
up of a single layer of thick cells, and comprises 8 to 14 
per cent of the corn kernel. Immediately under the 
aleurone layer lies the endosperm, which makes up about 
70 per cent of the grain. It is composed largely of starch 
cells, which are of two kinds, namely, the hard or horny 
starch, and the soft or white. In some types of corn both 
kinds are present, while in other types we find only one 
of the two kinds. Lying at the front of the kernel, that is, 
facing the tip of the ear, is the germ. Starting at the tip, 



38 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

it extends sometimes two-thirds of the distance to the 
crown, and makes up from 7 to 15 per cent of the kernel. 
It is divided into two parts, the scutellum and the growing 
portion. The latter is divided into the plumule and the 
radicle. 

The color of the grain, in the case of white or yellow 
corn, is determined by the color of the endosperm and the 
aleurone layer. In the blue, purple or black, it is due to 
the color of the aleurone layer only, while in red corn the 
color pigment is found in the hull, and the endosperm 
may be either white or yellow. 

33. Ancestors of the corn plant. — Some of our culti- 
vated grains can be traced back to a time when their 
ancestors were growing wild in uncultivated lands. With 
the corn plant this has not been possible, since no wild 
types nor any very close relatives have been found. One 
of its nearest relatives is a plant called teosinte, a forage 
plant that grows luxuriantly in the favored sections of 
Mexico and Central America. This plant produces many 
branches, sometimes as many as forty or fifty coming 
from a single seed. At the end of the branches are 
tassels on which the grains are produced. 

Those of us who have worked in the corn field, in cutting 
or husking, have seen individual corn plants which show 
great variation from corn plants in general. It is not 
uncommon to find a corn plant with grains in the tassel. 
Less frequently, perhaps, do we find branching corn plants, 
each branch carrying an ear. If we have been close 
observers, we have often seen appendages attached to the 
tip of the husk, closely resembling the blade of a leaf. 
Why do we find these variations? Might it not be that 
these plants show a reversion, or a striking back to the 
original wild type? This is thought to be true by some 



COBN OR MAIZE 



39 



botanists and agronomists. Corn has been successfully 
crossed with teosinte and the progeny resembles both 
parents. From the study of these interesting variations 
Professor Montgomery has explained the origin of the 
corn plant in the following way : 
The ancestors of the corn 
plant were probably plants hav- 
ing many branches like teosinte, 
and were the result of a cross 
of teosinte on some similar 
plant, or the progeny of a sport 
of teosinte crossed with the 
common form. In either case 
the original corn plant had 
branches coming from the axils 
of the leaves. At the end of 
these branches were tassels 
similar to those found on field 
corn. They differed from the 
corn tassel in that both male 
and female flowers were pro- 
duced, and after fertilization 
grains developed. Thus the 
occasional plant that we find 
in a field of corn having grains 
in the tassel is a reversion to 
the original form. At first 
both male and female flowers 
were produced in the tassel of each branch. But the 
highest tassel, the one on the main stalk, was not well 
located to receive pollen, since the pollen would naturally 
be carried downward, while those on the lower branches 
were in a favorable position to receive pollen but not in a 




Fig. 4. — An ear of dent 
corn, with small ears clustered 
at the base, showing reap- 
pearance of lateral branches. 



40 



FIELD CBOP PRODUCTION 



position to pollinate those higher 
up. Thus the female flowers 
on the upper tassel were in- 
completely fertilized, if fertihzed 
at all, and due to the loss of 
function gradually disappeared, 
so that after a time only male 
flowers were produced. On the 
tassels of the lower branches, 
the male or pollen producing 
flowers gradually lost their use- 
fulness, and after a time only 
female flowers were produced 
on these branches. 

After the disappearance of the 
male flowers from the lower 
branches, the central spike of 
each tassel developed into what 
is now the cob, and at the same 
time the lateral branches grad- 
ually disappeared. Some proof 
of this assumption is to be found 
in the frequent occurrence of an 
ear developed in the usual way, 
but with five or six small ears 
clustered at the base. The small 
ears are probably due to the 
reappearance of the lateral 
branches of the original tassel. 
After the development of the 
central spike of the tassel into 
the ear, the load carried at the 
end of the branch was greatly increased in weight. In order 




Fig. 5. — A branching 
corn plant grown in Ohio, 
perhaps a reversion to an 
ancestral form. 



CORN OR MAIZE 41 

to overcome the inconvenience of carrying a heavy load 
at the end of a long branch, nature gradually shortened 
the internodes of the branches, thus reducing them in 
length, until now the ear is carried on a short branch near 
the main stalk. As the branches were shortened, the nodes 
were brought close together, thus causing the leaf sheaths 
to overlap or telescope. The leaf sheaths thus telescoped 
form the husks that cover the ear. During the time that 
the branches were becoming shorter, the leaf blades were 
gradually disappearing, and now in most cases only the 
sheath remains. Very frequently, however, we find 
husks with quite long blades on them. This is a reversion 
to the original form when the shank was a long branch, 
and leaves were produced on it as they now are on the 
main stalk. 

The corn plant formerly produced several branches 
each carrying a small ear, but through the centuries 
that it has been cultivated by man, he has selected large 
ears for seed which were probably produced on plants 
having few branches, and has in this way developed plants 
that produce one or two large ears rather than several 
small ones. However, it is not infrequent that we find 
corn plants with two, three, and in rare cases four or five 
ears. If we could catch hold of these ears and pull the 
shank out, extending the internodes so that they would 
be the same length as those of the main stalk, we would 
have a branched corn plant, similar in this respect to the 
original form. 

^f, TYPES OF CORN 

Zea Mays has been divided into six distinct types or 
classes. The character and arrangement of the endo- 
sperm is the principal basis for this division. In the 



42 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



different types we find variations in the shape of the kernel 
and the manner of growth of the plant. 

34. Dent corn. — Dent corns have the hard or horny 
endosperm arranged along the sides of the kernel and the 
white or soft endosperm surrounding the germ on three 
sides and extending to the crown. Thus the horny endo- 
sperm forms rigid sides to the kernel, while the center, 
being composed of soft endosperm containing a large 

amount of water, shrinks more 
rapidly than the sides and causes 
a dent in the crown at maturity. 
Because of this dent in the crown, 
the class is called dent corn. The 
degree of the dent is largely due 
to the proportion of soft to hard 
endosperm. Dent corn is char- 
acterized by its deep and usually 
wedged shaped grains, large di- 
ameter of the ear and large num- 
ber of rows of kernels. There is 
of course great variation in the 
height of the plant, the size and 
shape of the ear, and the like, due to variety differences 
or to environment. Usually only one ear is produced 
on each stalk, but when planted thinly or on very fertile 
land, two and sometimes three ears are produced. Dent 
corn does not sucker freely except when thinly planted. 
The number of rows of kernels per ear varies from 10 to 24, 
but almost all of the dent varieties have from 16 to 20 
rows. The ears vary from 6 to 14 inches in length, 
and from 5.5 to 7.5 inches in circumference. The most 
common measurements are from 6.5 to 7 inches in cir- 
cumference and from 8 to 9 inches in length. Ears vary 




Fig. 6. — Cross section of 
a kernel of dent corn. 



CORN OR MAIZE 



43 



■\ 






t^^E^E! 



in weight from J pound to IJ pounds. A good dent 
ear weighs from 12 to 15 ounces. Dent corn to fully 
mature requires a growing season of from 90 to 100 days 
for the early varieties, to 130 to 150 days for the late 
varieties. There are over 300 varieties of dent corn, and 
in this large number of varieties great vari- . 

ation is found in the adaptability to soil 
and climate, length of growing season and 
in the general character of the plant and 
ear. White and yellow are the principal 
colors found in this type, but there are 
also varieties of blue, purple and mottled 
dent corn. Dent corn is of greater agri- 
cultural importance by far than all other 
types combined, for it is the corn of the 
great corn growing sections of the world. 
In the United States dent corn is the type 
that is grown in the great corn producing 
states of the Central West. The bulk of 
the corn produced in the United States for 
use in this country and that grown for 
export belongs to this class. 

35. Flint corn. — The name flint is given 
to the varieties of corn belonging to this 
class because of the hard flinty appearance 
of the kernels as viewed on the ear. If 
a kernel of flint corn is split open, it will 
be found to contain both hard and soft endosperm, but ar- 
ranged differently from that found in dent corn. In flint corn 
the hard or horny endosperm extends up the sides of the 
kernel and also over the crown, thus surrounding the soft 
endosperm and the germ. Because the hard endosperm 
shrinks uniformly, no dent is formed in most cases, 



-An 
dent 



44 



FIELD CHOP PEODUCTION 



although when the hard endosperm is in a thin layer over 
the crown, as is found in some varieties, a slight dent is 
formed. Flint corn is characterized by a somewhat 
smaller plant than the dent, with a tendency to produce 
two ears. The ears are smaller in circumference but of 
about the same length as those of the dent type. The 
number of rows on the ear varies from 8 to 16, with 8 the 
most common. The name *' eight-rowed " corn is sometimes 
applied to certain varieties of this type. The grains are 
hard, with a smooth, flinty appearance, and more oval 

in shape than the dent. White 
and golden yellow are the most 
common colors. A good ear of this 
type will weigh 7 or 8 ounces. Flint 
corn does not require as long a grow- 
ing season as the dent varieties. 
It is grown principally in the New 
England States, New York, Penn- 
sylvania and Canada, and other 
regions with short growing seasons. 
Large yields have been reported from flint varieties, 
and in comparative trials it has sometimes outyielded 
the dent, although where the dent variety can be 
grown, successive crops of it will yield the best average. 
Flint corn is highly prized by millers for making corn 
meal, it being more desirable for this purpose than dent 
varieties. 

36. Pop corn. — This type of corn gets its name from 
the well-known characteristic of popping, or bursting into 
a large white fluffy mass when heated. If we examine the 
inside of an unpopped kernel, we will find that almost all 
of the endosperm is of the hard or horny sort. Sometimes 
we may find a thin layer of the soft starch around the germ. 




Fig. 8. — Cross section of 
a kernel of flint corn. 



COBN OR MAIZE 45 

but if it is present in too large amounts the corn does not 
pop well. The popping of the kernel is due to the pressure 
exerted in the starch cells by the changing of the moisture 
in them to steam, when heat is applied. The pressure of 
the steam inclosed in the cells is so great as to cause an 
explosion of such force as to turn the 
kernel inside out, and completely change 
its texture into a light, fluffy mass, from 
fifteen to twenty times the size of the 
unpopped grain. Those of you who have 
had experience in the popping of corn 
know that, unless the corn is properly 
dried out, your efforts will not meet with 
success. And, too, if the corn is too dry 
a good pop cannot be made. For this 
reason it is best to keep the corn on the 
cob and shell it just before popping, since 
if kept in this manner it does not dry 
out so completely. The plant of the pop 
corn does not grow as large as the dent 
or flint types. It varies from 3.5 to 10 
feet. Several ears are frequently pro- 
duced on a stalk, and freak plants or 
sports are more common than in other 
types. The varieties of pop corn may be " '^"' 
divided into two general classes, namely, oTflin7^rn^^ 
the rice and the pearl. The rice corn is 
characterized by the crown of the kernel coming to 
a sharp point, giving a rough or prickly appearance 
to the ear. At the apex of the pointed crown may be 
seen a scar showing the former attachment of the silk. 
In the pearl corn the kernels are rounded or flattened 
at the crown and are smooth, having the appearance in 



46 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



this respect of an ear of flint corn. In tlie rice corn the 
ears are incUned to be tapering with the kernels in irregular 
rows, while in the pearl corn the ears are more often cylin- 
drical and the kernels are in straight rows. There are 
early, medium and late varieties of both the rice and pearl 
corn. One variety, called Tom Thumb, because of its 
diminutive proportion, is frequently grown 
as a curiosity. A perfectly formed ear 
measuring 2 inches in length would indeed, 
when compared with a good ear of dent 
corn, meet the demands of the curious. 
Pop corn can be grown anywhere that dent 
or flint corn can be grown. Farmers 
usually supply their own needs by grow- 
ing a small patch with the garden truck. 
The production to supply the numerous 
pop corn wagons and confectionery stores 
has been largely confined to one county 
each in Iowa and Nebraska. In these 
sections soil and climate are particularly 
well suited to its growth, and here it has 
become an important crop, grown and 
harvested by farmers who have become 
specialists in its production. So great is the 
industry in these sections that hundreds of car loads are 
sent out from shipping points each season. One bushel 
of ears when husked weighs about 38 pounds. When 
cured for one season, at which time it is put on the market, 
35 pounds is the standard weight per bushel of ears. 
Fifty or sixty bushels of ears per acre is considered a very 
good yield. 

37. Soft corn. — One has only to examine a longitu- 
dinal section of a kernel of this type to learn why it has 




Fig. 10. — Rice 
pop corn. 



CORN OR MAIZE 



47 



been called soft corn. Such an examination will reveal the 
fact that no hard endosperm is present, but that the entire 
endosperm is made up of soft starch. So soft are the ker- 
nels of this type of corn that even when they mature they 
can sometimes be dented with the thumb nail. Soft corn 
is usually a large, rank-growing plant requiring a long 
growing season to come to its maturity. For this reason 
it is not grown to any extent in the United States. One 
variety, sometimes called Squaw corn, which has a com- 
paratively short growing season, is 
grown in the Dakotas and other 
Northwestern States. Another 
variety, Brazilian flour corn, is 
sometimes grown for the silo. Soft 
corn is more commonly grown in 
Mexico, Central America, and por- 
tions of South America, which have 
long growing seasons, although 
compared with dent or flint corn it 
is not of much commercial im- 
portance. The Indians are said 
to have grown it extensively on account of the ease of 
grinding it into meal. Soft corn is believed to be one of 
the oldest types of corn, since it has been found in the 
mounds of prehistoric tribes in southwestern United States 
and on the west coast of South America. The ears of soft 
corn are similar in appearance to those of the flint type. 
The kernels are usually large, sometimes measuring as 
much as three-fourths of an inch in breadth. 

38. Sweet corn. — In this type of corn little starch has 
been developed in the kernels, and almost all of the carbo- 
hydrate is in the form of sugar, giving them a distinctly 
sweet taste. The grains are usually broad wedge shaped, 




Fig. 11. — Cross section 
of a kernel of soft corn. 



48 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



having a wrinkled or shriveled appearance, and the 
endosperm is horny and translucent. The plants grow 
from two to ten feet in height, with a marked tendency 
to sucker, and to produce two to three ears on a stalk. 
Sweet corn is grown " 

largely for cooking and 
canning purposes, and 
for this use is harvested 
before it reaches matu- 
rity. The time required 
for it to reach the stage 
when it is best suited 
for this purpose is from 
50 to 100 days, depend- 
ing upon the variety. In 
the New England States, 
parts of New York, Penn- 
sylvania and Ohio, sweet 
corn is grown in a large 
way and hauled direct 
from the field to the can- 
ning factories. Growers 
in these regions where 
this practice is followed 
enter into contracts with 
the owners of the fac- 
tories to deliver their crops at a given 
rate per ton. The price of course 
varies with supply and demand, and also with the variety 
grown, some varieties commanding a premium of as much 
as two dollars per ton over the less desirable varieties. 
The price is from 6 to 10 dollars per ton. The yield 
obtained varies from two to four tons per acre, or even 



Fig. 12. 
— An ear of 
soft corn. 




Fig. 



13. — An ear 
sweet corn. 



of 



CORN OR MAIZE 



49 



more when good cultural methods are practiced, and 
when growing conditions are favorable. Thus the gross 
income from an acre may amount to as much as 40 
dollars, which, considering the small amount of labor 
required, gives a good return to 
the grower, when compared with 
the earnings from other farm 
crops. 

39. Pod corn. — This type of 
corn gets its name from the fact 
that each kernel is inclosed in a 
little husk or pod. The pod corn 
plant is inclined to be leafy and 
suckers abundantly, often having 
heavy tassels producing kernels. 
The kernels may resemble those 
of almost any of the other types 
of corn, due probably to the 
fact that it has been subjected 
to frequent crossings with other 
types. It has been suggested that 
pod corn is probably the primitive 
type from which the other types 
have been developed, but recent 
investigation does not uphold this 
contention. Those who uphold 
this theory explain that the husks 
which inclose the kernels were the 
means by which nature protected 

the latter from birds and animals, and that they also 
assisted in their dissemination, since a kernel inclosed 
in a pod will float on water. Since corn has become a 
cultivated plant the pods have lost their usefulness and 




Fig. 14. 



An ear of pod 
corn. 



50 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

have gradually disappeared, until now in the other types 
of corn we find them only in a rudimentary form. If we 
examine closely an ear of dent or flint corn, we find rudi- 
mentary husks at the tip of the kernel, and when the 
kernel is removed, the husks do not remain attached to it 
as in pod corn, but stay on the cob. The fact that pod 
corn frequently produces corn on the tassel leads us to 
believe that it is closely related to the primitive type, 
in which all the kernels were produced in a tassel-like struc- 
ture. Pod corn is of no economic importance, being grown 
only as a curiosity, for which purpose it is sometimes sold 
by seedsmen under the name of Egyptian corn. Rocky 
Mountain corn, or primitive corn. 

USES OF THE CORN PLANT 

The various uses of the corn plant may be classified into 
three groups, viz., human food, animal food, and mis- 
cellaneous. 

40. Use as food. — Corn finds its chief uses as human 
food in the form of green ear corn served as roasting ears 
or cut from the cob, and as corn meal, served as corn meal 
mush or corn bread or cakes, and as pop corn eaten from 
the hand. Varieties of sweet corn are most commonly 
used for roasting ears or for canning. Sometimes flint 
and dent corn are used for this purpose, but they find their 
greater usefulness as human food in the making of corn 
meal. Flint corn is superior to any other type for this 
purpose. The pop corns are used almost entirely as 
human food. 

The use of corn as a stock food is too well known to 
require much comment. The grain itself, either ground 
or whole, is the most common form used for this purpose. 
Other forms are ensilage, fodder, and stover, and it is also 



CORN OR MAIZE 51 

used as a soiling crop. The grain, when considered from 
the standpoint of its chemical composition, is relatively 
high in fat and starch but low in protein. It is therefore 
an excellent food for fattening animals, but is not desirable 
as the main portion of the ration for young growing animals 
or for milch cows. Corn stover, if cut at the proper time 
and well preserved, compares favorably with timothy hay 
in feeding value. Ensilage, in which both the grain and 
roughage are fed together, besides being high in digestible 
matter, is also very palatable, thus making an excellent 
feed for most farm animals. Many of the by-products 
from manufacture are important live stock feeds. 

41. Manufactured products. — Lye hominy is a well-known 
product of corn, the manufacture of which is often conducted on 
a small scale by the housewife. In the making of lye hominy, 
the whole kernels are treated with a solution of alkali or lye to 
loosen the hull. After the treatment, the hulls are easily removed. 
The hulled kernels are then thoroughly washed to remove all of 
the lye. Hominy mills perform the same operations on a much 
larger scale. A rather flinty type of white corn is most desirable 
for hominy. 

Cerealine is a similar preparation made from the hard, horny 
portions of the kernel. Corn with a large proportion of horny 
endosperm is desired by the manufacturer of cerealine. Many 
concerns place upon the market breakfast foods made from corn, 
which may be grouped under the term of corn flakes. White 
corn is most often used in their manufacture. The kernels 
are first cracked and the germ removed. The second step in 
the process is that of steam cooking the cracked kernels, adding 
sugar and salt to flavor them. After the cooking they are dried 
and run between heavy rollers which roll each particle of corn 
kernel into a flake. The flakes are then toasted and boxed for 
the market. 

In the making of corn starch, several other products, which 
were formerly grouped under the term of by-products, are pro- 
duced. Recently, however, these products have become of 



52 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

such importance that the term " by-products " can no longer be 
accurately applied. Sometimes the entire profit from a starch 
factory is derived from the utilization of what was formerly 
waste. 

In the manufacture of starch, the shelled corn is first steeped 
in water for a time, and then the kernels are cracked by running 
them through coarse crushers. The ground mass is then trans- 
ferred to separators and a small amount of water is added, 
making a milky liquid. Upon stirring, the germs arise to the 
surface and are removed. The germs thus liberated are thor- 
oughly washed to remove all the starch and are then placed in 
a hydraulic press which presses out the oil. That part which re- 
mains in the press is either sold as corn oil cake or is ground 
and sold as germ meal. The oil which has been removed by 
pressure is used in this country in the manufacture of soap, 
soap powders, and paints, and a large amount is exported in the 
crude form for similar uses abroad. A substitute for rubber has 
been made from germ oil and is used after vulcanizing as a sup- 
plement of, or as a substitute for, rubber in the making of auto- 
mobile tires, rubber shoes, and other rubber goods. 

That part which is left in the tanks is the glutinous material, 
bran and starch. This, when run over bolting cloth, allows the 
starch and glutinous matter to pass through and retains the 
bran, thus separating it. The bran is washed to remove all the 
starch and is then dried and ground and sold as cattle feed. 
The starchy Hquid containing the starch and glutinous matter 
is run over slightly inchned tables, and because of specific gravity 
the starch is deposited on the tables, while the glutinous material 
is carried over the end of the tables into receiving tanks. The 
latter is concentrated by filter presses and dried. When ground 
it is sold on the market as gluten meal. Sometimes the ground 
bran is mixed with the glutinous matter and with the Hquid 
used in steeping at the beginning of the process. The mixture 
is dried to 10 per cent of moisture and then ground, bagged, and 
sold on the market as gluten feed. The water used in steeping 
the uncracked kernels removes some of the starch and mineral 
elements, which, when added to the grain and gluten meal, 
make a more desirable feed for animals. Gluten meal, therefore, 
differs from gluten feed in that the feed has besides the gluten 



CORN OR MAIZE 53 

a certain per cent of bran and mineral elements. These two 
feeds, together with oil cake, have a very important place in the 
trade of concentrated stock feeds. The starch remaining on the 
incline table is termed green starch, and when removed from the 
tables is diluted with water until it forms a milky liquid. From 
this liquid by careful refining corn starch is removed. After 
filtering, it is dried in kilns and ground fine, run through revolv- 
ing silk screens, and is then boxed or barreled and put upon the 
market for home consumption or for the trade. By varying 
time and temperature in refining, various grades and kinds of 
starch are made. From the starch, corn sirup, corn sugar, mill, 
laundry, and edible starch are made. Green starch when sub- 
jected to a high heat under pressure in the presence of hydro- 
chloric or certain other acids forms glucose. Sugar made from 
corn in this manner is used in the making of sirup, in the brewing 
of ales and porters, in fermenting beers, and in the making of 
caramel. 

42. Miscellaneous uses. — The grain of corn is used in the 
making of alcohol, but because of the price of corn and the com- 
parative cheapness of other material that can be used as a source 
of alcohol, it is not likely that it will be used extensively for this 
purpose. Corn stalks and the pith from the stalks have been 
used successfully in the making of paper. Whether or not the 
making of paper from them will be placed on a practical basis will 
depend largely upon the invention of suitable machinery. If 
corn stalks can be utilized in this way, the great loss in the large 
fields of the Middle West will be greatly reduced. The pith of 
the corn stalks is also used in the manufacture of gunpowder, 
while in the packing of battleships it is especially valuable, 
since when wet it will swell and thus close an opening that may 
be made by a projectile. The husks of corn are used in up- 
holstering and in the making of mattresses and door mats. 
Cob down is also used in upholstering and in the packing of 
pillows. The utilization of the corn plant is extending into many 
trades, and doubtless it will in the future be found useful in many 
ways unknown at present. 



54 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 

43. The world's production. — Since the discovery of 
America, corn has been introduced into the leading agri- 
cultural countries of the world. A study of the table 
of the world's production of corn for the five years, 1908 
to 1912, shows that the bulk, or about 76 per cent of the 
world's corn crop, is produced in North America. The 
United States is by far the greatest corn producing country 
of the world, producing in the five years above mentioned 
over 70 per cent of the world's crop. Europe is second, 
producing 544 million bushels or about 19 per cent as much 
as the United States. Austria-Hungary, Roumania, 
Italy, and Russia are the leading corn producing countries 
of Europe, while France, Portugal, Spain, and Bulgaria 
produce only a few millions of bushels each. In Africa, 
Egypt and South Africa are responsible for over 80 per cent 
of her total crop. In South America, Argentina is by far 
the leading corn growing country, while small amounts are 
produced in Chili and Uruguay. A remarkable increase 
in production has been made in Roumania and South 
Africa within the past few years. Roumania cannot 
hope for a much further increase in her production, since 
almost all of the land adapted to corn growing is now 
being utilized. The English government, by the estab- 
hshment of experiment stations to study the best methods 
of culture, has been largely responsible for the develop- 
ment of South Africa into an important corn growing 
country. This country will doubtless still further increase 
her production, since considerable land is yet available 
for the growing of this crop. Of all the corn growing 
countries, Argentina in South America alone gives promise 
of becoming a strong competitor of the United States. 



CORN OR MAIZE 55 

World's Corn Crop 
(Five years' average, 1908-1912) 

North America 

United States 2692 million bushels 

Mexico 140 million bushels 

Canada 19 million bushels 

Total 2851 million bushels 

South America 

Argentina 162 million bushels 

Uruguay , 5 million bushels 

Chili 1 million bushels 

Total 168 million bushels 

Europe 

Austria-Hungary 250 million bushels 

Roumania 93 million bushels 

Italy 78 million bushels 

Russia 67 million bushels 

All others 66 million bushels 

Total 544 million bushels 

Africa . , 87 miUion bushels 

Australia 10 million bushels 

Grand total 3660 million bushels 

Leading Corn Producing States of United States 

(Five years' average, 1908-1912) 

Illinois . 380 miUions 

Iowa 355.6 millions 

Missouri 221.3 milUons 

Indiana 189.5 miUions 

Nebraska 177.7 millions 

Ohio 156.5 millions 

Kansas 156.1 millions 

Total 1636.7 millions 

Agriculturally, Argentina is yet a new country, and the 
vast areas of undeveloped land, which seem to be adapted 



56 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

to the growing of this crop, will doubtless within a few 
years be put under the plow. In the United States most 
of the land adapted to the growing of corn is now being 
tilled, and if our production is to be increased, it must 
come through a greater yield per acre. The development 
of high yielding strains, and the practicing of better meth- 
ods of culture are the means open to us for greatly 
increasing our production. 

Corn does not play a very large part in the world's 
commerce. Only four countries export any considerable 
amount. These in order of their exportation for 1907 
to 1911 are: Argentina, 60 milhons of bushels, United 
States, 53 millions of bushels, Roumania, 31 millions of 
bushels, and Russia, 30 millions of bushels. Argentina, 
while her total production is small as compared with the 
United States, exports considerably more than this coun- 
try. The corn crop of the United States is largely utilized 
here in the feeding of live stock, and while only a little of 
it is exported as corn, much more finds its way to foreign 
markets in the form of pork and beef. Statistics giving 
the population of the United States and the production 
of corn by decades since 1850, show that our production 
has been keeping pace with our increase in population, 
the per capita production averaging slightly less than 30 
bushels. While the United States as a whole is the leading 
corn growing country of the world, this position is due to 
the corn crop of a few states which comprise what is known 
as the corn belt. The eight states shown in the table 
and parts of other states lying adjacent to them form the 
great corn growing section of the United States and are 
known as the corn belt states. These seven states pro- 
duce almost two-thirds of the crop of the United States 
and almost 50 per cent of the world's corn crop. While 



CORN OR MAIZE 57 

corn is reported as being grown in every state in the 
Union, these eight are the only ones that produce a surplus 
crop. The value of the corn crop in the United States 
in 1910 was estimated at 1500 millions of dollars, and in 
1911 at 1,700 millions of dollars. The value of the cotton 
crop is about 60 per cent that of corn, of wheat about 40 
per cent, and of hay about 50 per cent that of the corn 
crop. 

ADAPTATION 

44. Climate and soil. — Both climate and soil are im- 
portant factors in the distribution of the corn crop. 
The fact that so large a per cent of the corn crop is grown 
in the seven states of the corn belt is evidence that in 
these states are found the most suitable conditions for its 
growth. Of the two factors, climate is the more important. 
Corn requires a long, hot growing season with a great 
amount of sunshine and rainfall. If the temperature of 
the growing months. May, June, July, and August, is hot 
and is accompanied by an abundance of sunshine and 
plenty of rainfall, corn will grow luxuriantly, soil and 
other factors being favorable. The corn plant requires a 
large amount of water to make its growth. It has been 
estimated that about three hundred tons of water must 
pass through the plants for each ton of dry matter formed. 
Thus the rainfall of the growing months is closely asso- 
ciated with production. It has been found that in the corn 
belt, the rainfall for July is more closely associated with the 
yield than that of any other month. 

Corn grows best on loose, fertile, well-drained soil. 
Clay soils are not well adapted to the growing of corn, 
unless well supplied with organic matter. When lacking 
in organic matter, clay soils become hard, the soil particles 



58 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

packing closely together, and moisture is neither retained 
well nor absorbed in large amounts. The reason corn is 
grown so commonly and produces so abundantly in the 
corn belt states is that there the soils are made up 
largely of alluvial or drift deposits, and these states are 
also favored with abundance of sunshine and rainfall. 



CHAPTER IV 

CORN OR MAIZE {Continued) 

There remain to be discussed, in the treatment of 
maize, the practical questions of cultivation, the harvesting 
and storing and marketing, the improvement of the types 
and varieties, and the insects and diseases. 

METHODS OF CULTURE 

Numerous experiments, as well as the experience of 
many growers, have demonstrated that higher yields can 
be secured when corn is grown in a rotation than when 
grown in the same field year after year. Continuous 
cropping of corn has been practiced in many parts of the 
corn belt for a few years, but after a time decreased yields 
have resulted. A ten year average at the Ohio Experi- 
ment Station for corn grown under continuous culture 
gave a yield of 9.64 bushels per acre, while that grown in 
five-year rotation gave 38.85 bushels per acre. The place 
taken by corn in most well-managed rotations is after 
grass and clover. Corn can use sod better than does wheat 
or oats, while wheat and oats do well after corn. A ro- 
tation based on this fact will usually consist of corn, wheat 
and clover, or corn, oats, wheat, clover and timothy. In 
either case the grass is plowed under and the land put 
into corn. The organic matter added by this practice 
produces a beneficial effect, by increasing the water-hold- 

59 



60 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



ing capacity and preventing the soil from becoming hard 
and compact. Barnyard manure is sometimes apphed 
to the grass land in the spring, thus benefiting both the 
hay and the corn, or it is applied to the meadow after 
the hay is cut, and turned under for corn. Soils that have 
been under cultivation for a long time, or that are naturally 
deficient in some of the elements of plant food, may be 
greatly benefited by the addition of commercial fertilizers 




Fig. 15. — Unfertilized and fertilized corn plots grown in continuous 

culture for 18 years. 



to supplement the barnyard manure. No certain fer- 
tilizer can be recommended as the best corn fertilizer. 
Some fields require one element of plant food or a mixture 
of fertilizing constituents, while others may require quite a 
different treatment. In other words, the soil should be 
fertilized and not the corn. When commercial fertilizers 
are applied to corn land, they should be broadcast or 
drilled in with a fertilizer drill. The practice of sowing 
the fertilizer into the hill with the corn is not to be recom- 
mended, since the corn roots will find plant food so close 



CORN OR MAIZE 61 

at hand that they will not branch out or grow down deep 
in the soil, and when dry weather comes later in the 
season, the roots will not be able to reach the water in 
the deeper subsoil. A small root system will thus result 
from sowing the fertilizer in the hill, and the corn will be 
more easily blown over. Sometimes a small amount, 
60 to 100 pounds of fertiliaer per acre, if placed in the 
rows, will start the plants off more rapidly, thus enabling 
them to get ahead of weeds and insects. 

45. Plowing and preparing the seed bed. — It might 
be well before discussing the methods of preparing the land 
for corn, to consider some of the essentials of a good seed 
bed. Why should the land be plowed? Will not the 
plants grow as well in soil that has not been broken up 
by the plow? When we know the principles underlying 
the purpose of plowing, we are more nearly able to analyze 
the conditions and thereby determine the most desirable 
practice to follow. There are several reasons why plowing 
makes the soil more favorable for plant growth. In land 
that has not been plowed for some time the soil particles 
are packed closely together and the surface soil becomes 
firm and compact. When this condition exists, the soil 
does not readily absorb water from falling rain, and much is 
lost by surface runoff. And, too, since the soil particles 
are close together, moisture that is already in the soil 
will reach the surface by capillarity and be lost by evapora- 
tion. Thus plowed land will not only absorb more water 
but will also prevent that which is already in the soil from 
being lost by evaporation. Plowing increases the available 
water for the plant in another way. Since the plant only 
uses capillary water, or that which forms a film around 
the soil particles, plowing by breaking up the soil into 
finer particles permits the presence of a larger amount of 



62 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



film moisture. The breaking up of the soil into fine 
particles also permits the air to enter the soil more freely 
and thus supply the root cells with oxygen, which they 
require just as do those plant cells above ground. Plants 
obtain their food by means of root hairs which are so 
delicate that they cannot penetrate the soil particles, but 
grow around them. Thus a soil composed of many fine 




Fig. 16. — Plowing with a tractor. 



particles provides greater feeding area for the plant than 
one made up of large particles. Another purpose of 
plowing is to incorporate with the soil the organic matter 
that it has accumulated on the surface or that is applied 
in the form of manure or by growing a green manure crop. 
The organic matter when mixed with the soil not only 
supplies it with plant food, but improves its physical 
condition, permitting better aeration and increasing its 



COJRN OR MAIZE 63 

water-holding capacity. The depth at which to plow 
depends largely upon the preceding practices and upon 
the nature of the soil. Deep plowing is to be preferred 
since it increases the feeding area for the plant roots. 
However, if the practice of shallow plowing, four or five 
inches, has been followed for some time, it is not well to 
turn up too much of the subsoil at one time. By plowing 
an inch deeper each year until a depth of 8 or 9 inches is 
reached, the small amount of subsoil turned up each year 
will gradually be mixed with the surface soil and organic 
matter, and thus running together or puddling will not 
result. 

46. Time of plowing. — The plowing for corn may be 
done in the fall, winter, or spring. In order to determine 
which is the most desirable time to plow a field, it is neces- 
sary to consider both the advantages to be gained, and the 
disadvantages that may result from the practice. These 
will be taken up in the following paragraphs. 

47. Conservation of moisture. — The loose ground 
turned up by fall plowing will absorb more water from the 
rain and snow during the winter and spring than unplowed 
land. Much of the water runs off from the surface if the 
ground is not broken up. Not only will loose soil absorb 
more water than hard unplowed ground, but less will be 
lost by evaporation. Plowing breaks up the surface soil 
and separates the soil particles so that the film moisture 
cannot get hold of them and reach the surface to be lost 
by evaporation. Fall plowing, while conserving moisture, 
at the same time is conserving heat, for it enables the heat 
of the sun in the spring to be used in warming up the seed 
bed instead of being used in evaporation. 

48. Saving of time. — At the time fall or winter plowing 
is being done, the extremely busy season is over ; thus the 



64 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



plowing can be more thoroughly done, since it need not 
be rushed by other work. At the same time it lessens the 
work of the farmer in the spring when he is busiest. 

49. Weathering. — Increasing the depth of plowing 
can be done more satisfactorily in the fall than in the 
spring. The subsoil that is turned up in the fall will be 
incorporated with the surface soil by freezing and thawing, 
which are excellent agencies in pulverizing the soil. 




Fig. 17. — Afield of corn almost completely destroyed by grubworms. 



50. Killing of insects. — Many of the troublesome in- 
sects injurious to field crops can be effectively combated 
by fall plowing. Many insects spend the winter a few 
inches below the surface of the ground, some in the egg 
stage, some in the worm or grub stage. Fall or winter 
plowing will break many of the eggs or egg sacs, bring the 
caterpillar and pupa to the surface, where many will be 
killed by freezing and others eaten by birds, or skunks and 
other animals. The cut-worm and the grubworm pass 
the winter in the ground in the partly grown stage. Fall 
plowing has been recommended as one of the best methods 



CORN OR MAIZE 65 

of combating them. The practice of fall plowing interferes 
with the winter resting stage of many other insects, chief 
among which are the corn-bill-bug, corn-root louse, grass- 
hopper, wire-worm, and the corn root webworm. 

51. Puddling. — Tenacious soils, or soil with little or 
no organic matter, if fall plowed, w^ill sometimes become 
hard and compact by spring. If plenty of humus is fur- 
nished the soil by the application of barnyard manure or 
by the turning under of green manure crops, little puddling 
will result from fall plowing. 

52. Washing. — When the ground is steep to the extent 
that losses of the soil are likely to occur by surface wash- 
ing, fall plowing is not generally recommended ; but if the 
ground is slightly rolling, plowing at right angles to the 
slope will reduce the amount of washing. The slight 
ridges produced by the plow will have a tendency to 
prevent washing, and much of the water will be absorbed 
by the loose soil. 

53. Loss of plant food. — Since no crop is growing on the 
land in late fall or early spring, certain elements of plant 
food that have become soluble may be washed from the 
soil. The loss in this way is not great, however, and rarely 
is the loss of plant food from this cause sufficient to pre- 
vent fall or winter plowing if other conditions are favorable 
for the practice. 

54. Spring plowing. — If fall plowing cannot be prac- 
ticed, then it is best to plow as early in the spring as possible. 
Unless plowed early in the spring, the soil, which has been 
packed down by the rain and by freezing and thawing, 
will permit the water from below to reach the surface and 
be lost by evaporation. Land plowed late in the spring 
is usually dried out to such an extent that a fine seed bed 
cannot be secured. When barnyard manure or a green 



66 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



manure crop is plowed under, it should usually be done 
early, since if turned under late in the spring, it will not 
have time to decay and may prevent the water from 
coming up, and the corn roots from growing downward. 

55. Preparing the ground after plowing. — Fall plowed 
land is usually allowed to remain until spring without 
further preparation. The mistake is often made of de- 
laying the preparation of fall plowed land until just before 




Fig. 18. — Organic matter should not be plowed under in large amounts 
late in the spring, as it may prevent the capillary rise of moisture. 



seeding. When this practice is followed, complaint is 
often made that corn suffers more from lack of water than 
that on spring plowed land. This is due to a failure to 
establish early in the spring the earth mulch which has 
been settled down by the freezing and thawing of winter. 
The mulch should be reestablished as soon as the ground is 
dry enough in the spring, by cultivation with a harrow, 
and not be left to lose moisture until planting time. On 
spring plowed land the most successful plan of conserving 
moisture is that of following the plow each day with the 



CORN OR MAIZE 



61 



harrow. If this is not done, moisture will evaporate from 
the furrow slice, which will then become hard, making the 
further preparation of the soil a difficult task. A roller 
can sometimes be used to advantage in packing loose soil 
or in crushing clods. For crushing clods, a small roller 
is better than a large one, since a large roller will be more 




Fig. 19. — A good type of roller for crushing clods. 



likely to push them down in the ground, while a small one 
will crush them in the attempt to climb over them. A 
roller made up of many small rods, or any form that will 
give an uneven surface, is more efficient in crushing clods 
than a smooth one. The roller should always be followed 
with the harrow, since the former crushes the particles 
of soil together and thus reestablishes capillarity, permit- 
ting the escape of moisture. 



68 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

56. Testing the seed. — When a farmer refers to a 
' stand " of corn, he has in mind the relation of the number 
of stalks of corn actually growing in a given area, say an 
acre, to the number he had intended to have when planting 
the seed. For example, if the farmer has planted 12,000 
kernels per acre, he would like to have 12,000 plants 
grow to maturity. However, if only 9,000 plants result 
from the 12,000 kernels planted, he says that there is 
three-fourths or 75 per cent of a stand. While the farmer 
that plants 12,000 kernels would like to have them produce 
12,000 plants, he is very seldom, if ever, successful in 
getting that number. It is doubtful if the farmers of 
the corn belt states, on the average, have over 75 per cent 
of a stand. That is to say, if he plants 100 acres of corn 
and only gets 75 per cent of a stand, then there are 25 acres 
of the hundred that are not growing any corn. The grower 
has plowed, prepared, and planted the 25 acres, but does 
not receive full value for his labor. While 75 per cent of 
the stand spread over 100 acres will doubtless give a 
greater yield of corn than the same number of stalks on 
75 acres, it will not in all probability give as great a yield 
as a 100 per cent stand on 100 acres. 

There are many reasons why the farmer does not secure 
a perfect stand of corn, chief among which are : cut-worms, 
wire-worms, crows, poorly plowed and carelessly prepared 
seed bed, and poor seed corn. Probably the most common 
cause is that of poor seed. If one ear in which the kernels 
are dead is planted, it will mean a loss of 800 stalks which 
should produce 800 ears of corn. It is important, there- 
fore, that only that corn be planted that will produce a 
strong, vigorous sprout. Careless handling of seed corn 
in the fall and winter is usually responsible for lack of vi- 
tality. While ears having weak or dead kernels can some- 



CORN OR MAIZE 



69 



times be discarded by their general appearance, it is not 
always possible to detect them by this means. The only 
accurate way is to plant them and see if they will grow. 
This can be done by taking several kernels from each ear, 
and planting them in a small box filled with sawdust, sand, 
or soil. A box 24 X 24 inches and 4 inches deep is a 
convenient size. Put 2 inches of soil or sand in the box and 




Fig. 20. — Making a germination test. 



press it down firmly with a brick or the hand. Then drive 
tacks or small nails 2 inches apart along the sides and 
ends of the box and stretch cords over the top each way 
so as to form 2-inch squares. These squares can be 
numbered by figures along one side and letters along 
one end. The ears are numbered by attaching a small 
piece of paper to the butt by a pin. To remove the 
kernels, use a pocket-knife, inserting the blade at the 
edges of the kernels between the rows, and pry them out. 
Begin near the butt of the ear, remove one kernel, then 



70 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

turn the ear a little and remove another kernel a little 
higher up, going around the ear in a spiral so that six 
kernels are removed by the time the ear is turned around 
and the last kernel is taken out near the tip of the ear. 
Place the six kernels in square No. 1 of the germinating 
box. Handle ear No. 2 in the same way, placing the 
kernels from this ear in square No. 2 of the germinator. 
After six kernels have been removed from each ear and 
placed in the small square of the germinator corresponding 
to the number of the ear, fill up the box with dirt or 
sand. Then with a sprinkling can wet the soil until it is 
reasonably moist. Care should be exercised in selecting a 
place to set the tester, as a more accurate test can be se- 
cured if it is placed under conditions as near like those 
found in the field as possible. If the tester is placed behind 
the stove or in the furnace room, many kernels will grow 
that would not grow if planted in the field. Since the 
object of the test is to discard those that would not grow 
in the field, it is desirable to have the tests made under 
conditions similar to those found in the field. The results 
of the tests should be read when the plants are about 2 
inches high. The samples that do not produce six strong, 
vigorous plants should be noted, and the ears from which 
they were taken should be discarded. In this way, only 
those ears will be used for seed that have a strong vitality. 
A tester the size of the one given above will test at one time 
144 ears or enough to plant 10 or 11 acres. There are 
many kinds of commercial testers on the market, many of 
which are very reliable, while some do not meet the claims 
that are advanced for them. A home-made tester will 
do the work just as well as any of the commercial forms, 
and has the advantage of being much cheaper. This test 
may be made in late winter or early spring and will require 



CORN OR MAIZE 71 

from 2 to 4 weeks for completion, depending on condi- 
tions for growth. 

57. Grading seed corn. — Many growers think it is 
necessary to plant corn from the butts and tips to insure 
well-filled butts and tips in the progeny. Reports of 
eight experiment stations of tests running from 1 to 9 
years in which the seed from the butts, tips, and mid- 
dles of the ear was compared, showed that there has been 
practically no difference in yield. In order to get a 
uniform drop from the planter, it is a good plan to shell 
off the butts and tips from the seed ear. To still further 
increase the efficiency of the planter, it is well to select 
ears that are uniform in the size and shape of the kernel. 
A seed corn grader made up of three sieves with openings 
of different sizes may be used to remove the large and 
small kernels. Iowa Station reports that a planter using 
seed graded in this way gave 95 per cent of a perfect drop. 

58. Time of planting. — Corn may be planted in the 
spring as soon as the danger from frost is over, and the 
soil is warm enough for the seed to germinate. Planting at 
this time would be regarded as early, while if it is delayed 
three or four weeks from this time it would then be con- 
sidered late planting. The date at which the soil is at 
the proper temperature and the danger of frost is over 
will vary in a given locality with the season, and in different 
sections with the latitude. Early planting usually gives 
the best yield of mature corn. Corn planted late quite 
frequently has from 25 per cent to 35 per cent of moisture 
at harvest time, and in this condition is likely to spoil in 
the crib. Early planting is often impossible because of the 
lack of proper drainage which prevents early preparation 
of the soil. In many cases the increase in yield of mature 
corn will in a few years pay for the draining. 



72 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

59. Depth of planting. — Corn may be planted from 1 
to 5 inches deep ; 1 to 2 inches deep maj^ be considered 
shallow, while from 3 to 5 inches may be regarded as deep 
planting. The results of numerous experiments comparing 
deep and shallow planting, have generally been in favor of 
shallow planting. The depth of planting, however, will 
depend largely on the physical condition of the soil. If 
the soil is finely pulverized and the moisture has been 
retained by frequent cultivation, shallow planting is best. 
If the surface soil is lumpy and is dried out, it may be best 
to plant rather deeply, in order to cover the corn and place 
it where there is enough moisture to start germination. 
In many sections of the Western States corn is planted 
with a lister. The lister is an implement which plants the 
corn in the bottom of the furrow, the furrow being made 
by two disks or shovels running at either side of the drill 
hoe. Where this practice is followed the land is not 
plowed, and cultivation consists in plowing dirt into the 
furrow as the plants increase in height. The advantage 
over the ordinary method is that of the time and labor 
saved from plowing, and the securing of better moisture 
conditions, especially in rather dry areas. Listing can be 
practiced successfully only on loose, fertile soils. 

60. Rate of planting. — The rate of planting refers to 
the number of stalks per given area. The proper rate of 
planting corn will depend largely upon the fertility of the 
soil, and the purpose for which it is grown. Because of the 
several factors that will influence the best rate of planting 
corn, the experiment stations have not been able to make 
definite recommendations as to the number of stalks per 
hill or the number of hills per acre. Several stations have 
conducted experiments along this line, and from the results 
obtained have made general recommendations to assist 



COBN OR MAIZE 



73 



the grower in determining the proper rate of planting. 
Corn may be planted in hills, that is, several kernels in a 
group, or drilled, in which case kernels are placed along 
in a row, one kernel at a place. At the Nebraska Station, 
with hills 44 inches each way, the yield of grain was about 
the same for 3, 4, or 5 grains per hill. When the corn 
was planted thinly, 
large numbers of 
suckers or tillers were 
produced, many of 
which produced ears. 
When planted 
thickly, the percent- 
age of barren stalks 
was greater. In Il- 
linois, tests were made 
»t the main station 
and also on various 
soil types in different 
parts of the state. 
The results indicate 
that in the fertile soils 
of Northern Illinois, 
higher yields are ob- 
tained with hills 36 

inches each way and 3 stalks per hill, while in some of the 
less fertile soils, the best yield was obtained with 2 stalks 
per hill. At the Ohio Station, with the rate of planting vary- 
ing from 1 to 5 grains per hill, and hills 42 inches each way, 
there was a variation of only a few bushels in the yield of 3, 
4, and 5 stalks per hill. Four stalks per hill produced the 
largest yield. Two stalks per hill produced about 81 per 
cent and 3 stalks about 95 per cent as much as 4 grains. 




Fig. 21. 



Planting corn with a check 
rower. 



74 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

In the results of the Ohio and Nebraska experiments there 
was a noticeable difference in the size of the ear, and 
the per cent of barren stalks from the thick and thin 
planting. This is due in a great measure to the ability of 
the corn plant to adapt itself to existing conditions. If 
planted too thinly, the plants in order to produce as much 
as possible under existing conditions, produce large ears, 
more plants bear two ears, and there are fewer barren stalks. 
If planted too thickly, the ears are smaller, the percentage 
of two-eared plants is lower, and the percentage of barren 
stalks is greater. Many growers prefer a high percentage 
of large ears rather than a larger number of small ears and 
a few more bushels per acre, although if the corn is to be 
used for feeding live stock, there is no objection to the small 
ears. Many growers of show or seed corn plant thinly in 
order to produce a large number of big ears. For good soil 
conditions of the corn belt a rate of 3 grains per hill and 
hills 36 by 42 inches should produce a high yield of grain. 
In less fertile soils, 2 grains per hill may be a better 
rate at which to plant. 

The Ohio Station, in comparing hilling with drilling of 
corn, found that one grain every 12 inches or 2 grains 
every 24 inches gave better results than 3 grains per hill 36 
inches apart, or 4 grains per hill 48 inches apart. One ob- 
jection to drilling corn is that of not being able to cultivate 
it both ways, thus requiring in weedy fields considerable 
hand work with a hoe. In the rolling sections of the country 
drilling is the general practice, since if the rows are run 
at right angles to the slope, the soil does not wash so 
badly as when the stalks are grouped in a hill quite a 
distance apart. While drilling may give three or four 
bushels more per acre than the same number of grains 
planted in hills, it is often a question whether the increase 



CORN OB MAIZE 75 

in yield will compensate for the extra labor necessary in 
keeping the field free from weeds. When corn is grown 
for stover, the thicker rate of planting will give the highest 
yield of roughage. When planting for the silo, the corn 
should be drilled, if possible, at the rate of one grain every 
10 or 12 inches. While this may not give as great a 
tonnage as thicker planting, the percentage of grain is 
higher, thus giving equal if not a little more feeding value. 
61. Cultivation. — The principal reasons for cultivating 
the corn during the early stages of growth are to kill the 
weeds and conserve moisture. As has been pointed out, 
growing corn requires a large amount of water, and the 
amount of rainfall during the growing season is closely 
correlated with the yield. While it is not possible to 
control the amount of rainfall during the growing season, 
it is possible to save a large part of that which falls early 
in the season for the use of the plants when their needs 
for water are greatest. To do this it is necessary to keep 
the surface soil broken up into fine particles, to form a 
mulch which will prevent the water that is in the lower soil 
from reaching the surface and being lost by evaporation. 
Weeds are undesirable in a corn field because they not only 
use up the water that should be left for the use of the corn, 
but they also use up plant food. Therefore one operation 
may serve to kill the weeds, and also to reestablish the 
earth mulch to prevent evaporation of water. When the 
plants are small, this can best be done by a weeder or a 
spike tooth harrow, providing the ground is not cloddy 
at the time of cultivation, and if large annual weeds have 
not got a start. Cultivation is therefore rendered less 
difficult by thoroughly preparing the ground before 
planting. If a weeder or harrow is run over the field on a 
hot, sunshiny day, before the plants are up, it will establish 



76 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

the earth mulch and kill the weeds that are just starting. 
The weeder or harrow should be run over the field fre- 
quently until the plants are seven or eight inches high. 
These implements should not be used early in the morning 
or on cloudy days, since at this time the plant cells are 
filled with water and the plants are easily broken off. 
After the corn is too big to cultivate with the weeder, 
the mulch should be maintained by a cultivator equipped 
with small shovels, which should be run about 2 inches deep. 
Shallow cultivation will conserve the moisture and kill 
the small weeds quite as well as deep cultivation. How- 
ever, if large annual weeds are started, it may be necessary 
to run the shovel somewhat deeper in order to uproot 
them. Deep cultivation cuts off many of the corn roots 
and turns up a lot of moist soil which will dry out by ex- 
posure to the wind, thus causing a greater amount of 
moisture to be lost than by shallow cultivation. After 
the corn is too large for the cultivator, and the roots have 
grown in the upper soil, the mulch can be maintained by 
dragging a mower wheel or a plank drag between the 
rows. This will not only keep the dust mulch and kill 
the weeds, but will also provide a good seed bed for the 
seeding of catch-crops in the corn, or for the seeding of 
wheat later in the season. The frequency of cultivation 
will depend largely on the nature of the soil, the number of 
weeds present, and the amount of rainfall. In a very dry 
season it will be profitable to continue the cultivation until 
late in the summer, while in seasons of plentiful rainfall, 
such cultivation may not be necessary. 

HARVESTING AND STORING 

62. Harvesting. — - The method of harvesting depends 
largely upon the use that is to be made of the crop. If 



CORN OR MAIZE 11 

only the grain is desired, the most common practice 
of harvesting is that of husking the ears by hand from the 
standing stalk. Usually the ears are thrown directly 
into a wagon which accompanies one or two huskers. In 
a field of good corn one man, depending of course upon 
the individual, can husk and haul to the crib from 50 to 90 
bushels per day, A machine has been placed on the 
market that will husk the corn from the standing stalk, 
and by means of a conveyor deliver the ears into a wagon 
driven along beside the husker. A husker of this sort 
requires six or eight horses to pull it. The machine 
has not been regarded as a satisfactory one, and can only 
be used in very large fields where few turns are necessary. 
The machine is not in common use even among the growers 
who harvest a large acreage. 

Sometimes the grower uses not only the ears, but also 
the leaves and stalks. Corn fodder is the corn plant 
cut off near the ground and consists of the stalk, ear, and 
leaves. If, after cutting, the ears are husked out, the 
leaves and stalks are called corn stover. Corn may be 
cut either by hand or by means of corn cutting machinery. 
The number of hills put into one shock varies from 100 to 
144 or more. The cutting may be done by means of a 
sled with a knife on either side, and drawn by a horse 
walking between the two rows that are being cut. Two 
men stand on the sled and catch the corn as it is cut off 
by the knife. When they have secured an armful, the 
horse is stopped while the fodder is set up into a shock 
behind the sled. When the corn is down badly, this 
method of cutting cannot be employed. Another type 
of cutter, which is equipped with a large platform, permits 
the shock to be set up on the platform, and when completed 
is transferred by means of a lever to the ground behind 



78 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



the cutter. The com binder now in general use cuts and 
binds the fodder into bundles which are dropped off on 
the ground, and later set up into shocks. The time of 
cutting in order to secure the best yield of both grain and 
stover is when the husks are dry and from one-third to 
one-half of the leaves are still green. If cut before this 
time, the feeding value is not so great, due to immaturity ; 




Fig. 22. — Harvesting corn with a corn binder. 

and if cut much later, many of the leaves will drop off 
during the cutting. When the ears only are desired, they 
should be left on the stalk until fully mature. If removed 
before maturity, all of the starch will not be transferred 
from the leaves to the ear, and thus they will not have as 
great a feeding value as when fully mature. 

Many corn growers do not husk out the ears after 
cutting but feed the fodder to cattle, supplying them with 
both roughage and grain. In almost all cases the ears 
are husked out and fed separately from the stover. The 



CORN OR MAIZE 



79 



husking may be done by hand or by means of a husker, 
which not only removes the ears, but also shreds or cuts 
the stover up into small pieces. Stover after passing 
through the husker and shredder is called shredded 
stover. It is usually stored in the barn, or sometimes in 
stacks out of doors. Shredded stover is much more con- 
venient to handle in indoor feeding than stover not 
shredded. In some sections of the country only the leaves 
are used as forage. Where this practice is followed, the 
leaves are stripped from the plant and hauled away, leaving 
the stalk and ear in 
the field. Sometimes 
the top of the stalk, 
that part above the 
ear, is cut off and 
shocked, leaving the 
lower part of the stalk 
and the ear standing. 
When the corn is used 
for ensilage, it should 
be cut just a little be- 
fore it would be in 

proper condition to put into the shock. If allowed to 
become too dry, it will not pack in the silo, and it will 
be necessary to add water at the time of filling in order 
to make it pack more closely and to exclude the air. 
When corn is to be put into the silo, it is well to start 
cutting while it is a little green, for if cutting is begun 
just at the proper stage, part of the corn will have become 
too dry before the work is finished. 

Another method of harvesting the corn crop is that of 
turning hogs that are being prepared for the market into 
the field. This method is followed only in a comparatively 




Fig. 23. — Filling the silo. 



80 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



small way, and usually only a part of the crop on a given 
farm can be " hogged down " to advantage. The yield of 
corn, of course, will determine the number of hogs per 
acre that can be profitably turned into a given area. Ten 
acres of good corn will carry 75 good sized hogs to advan- 
tage. It is advisable to divide the field by means of a 
temporary fence, thus confining the hogs to a small area, 
which method will insure less waste than would result 
if they were given the run of the entire field. When the 




Fig. 24. — A field of corn in shock. 



corn has been well cleaned up, the feeding area can be 
extended by moving the temporary fence. When the 
field has been completely run over by the hogs that are 
being prepared for market, old hogs such as brood sows 
may be turned in to clean up the corn that has been left 
here and there over the field. When the farmer is pre- 
pared to harvest a part of the crop in this manner, it is to 
be recommended, since much labor is saved in the husking. 
Wet seasons are not favorable for " hogging down " corn, 
since the loss by waste is much greater than during the 



CORN OR MAIZE 81 

dry season. The tramping by the hogs in wet soil may 
cause it to break up cloddy the next spring. 

63. Loss in store. — The moisture content of ear 
corn at the time of harvest varies from 15 per cent to as 
much as 35 per cent, or more. The moisture content 
depends largely upon the maturity. Corn that is well 
matured usually has from 16 to 20 per cent of moisture 
at the time of harvest, while immature corn may have 
as much as 30 or 35 per cent. Corn with high moisture 
content loses considerable weight in store, due to the 
evaporation of the water. Many experiments have been 
conducted to determine the amount of shrinkage of ear 
corn in store. The .weight of the corn when put into the 
crib compared with the weight when taken out will show 
the loss due to the drying out while in store. The moisture 
content of corn when well dried out is from 10 to 14 per 
cent. Thus corn with 30 per cent of moisture at the time 
of harvest will show a loss in weight of from 15 per cent to 
18 per cent when completely dried out. The loss of well- 
matured corn while in storage is not nearly so great as the 
loss in immature corn. Perhaps the loss of well-matured 
corn will not exceed 8 or 10 per cent for the first year. 
Experiments conducted by the Illinois Station show 
that the greatest shrinkage occurs during the months of 
April and May. After May, corn in store loses very 
little in weight. If kept in store for two years or more, 
there is very little loss in weight after the spring following 
the time when it was stored in the fall. In this connection 
it is interesting to compare the advantage of marketing 
in the fall at the time of husking, with those of marketing 
in the following spring or summer, or at a still later date. 
To decide whether or not to market in the fall, the maturity 
of the corn at the time of harvest, the price in the fall, 



82 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

and the probable price in the spring or summer must be 
considered. Of course it is to be remembered that grain 
dealers do not pay corn prices for water. When corn with 
a high per cent of moisture is sold in the fall, the usual 
practice is not to buy it at a per bushel rate, but at a given 
price per 70 pounds or 72 pounds, as the case may be, 
depending upon the moisture content. Farmers who 
purchase corn for feeding should consider the moisture 
content just as do the grain dealers. Good ventilation in 
storage is essential, especially if the corn is not well dried 
out when husked. Storing corn in tight bins or cribs, 
unless it is well dried out, will be likely to cause molding 
and rotting. 

IMPROVEMENT OF CORN 

64. Method of improvement. — Increasing the yield 
of corn may be accomplished either by improving the 
fertility and physical conditions of the soil, or by improving 
the plant, or by both. Improving the soil has been 
briefly discussed under cultural methods, and only im- 
provement of the plant remains to be considered. The 
first consideration in the improvement of corn is the 
selection of the variety. Varieties of corn vary greatly 
in their adaptability to soils and climate, and in yield. 
There are a large number of varieties of dent and flint 
corn, some of which differ greatly in the character of the 
plant, and in the size, shape, and color of the ear and 
kernel. Many others, however, are so similar in all re- 
spects that it is impossible to distinguish between them. 
This is due in great measure to the common practice of 
giving to the corn the name of the man from whom the 
seed was secured, and henceforth that particular strain 
is known as " Jones' " Yellow Dent, " Wilson's " White, 
or " Knox County " Corn, as the case may be. Some- 



CORN OR MAIZE 83 

times, too, after a few years of selection for a special type, 
the grower renames one of the older varieties. This has 
naturally led to considerable confusion, and emphasizes 
the importance of a uniform nomenclature. Many of 
the older varieties and some of the newer ones have been 
developed into a fixed variety type by careful and con- 
sistent selection. Thus Leaming, Reid's Yellow Dent, 
and Pride of the North are distinct varieties, while many 
other so-called varieties are only selections from the older 
varieties. 

65. Variety test. — The selection of a variety for any 
given locality involves the choice of a variety adapted to 
the soil and climate. Not only must it be adapted to soil 
and climate, but it must also be a high yielder of a good 
quality of corn. It is not safe to select a variety from a 
distance or even from a neighboring county, unless one 
is sure that it will be adapted to the conditions found on 
the farm on which it is to be grown. Corn plants are 
sensitive to a change of soil and climate. A variety that 
is well adapted to one section of the country or to one 
farm may not be suited to another farm. Many have 
experienced sad results from buying seed from a well- 
recommended variety in another state or even within the 
same state. The custom of purchasing seed from growers 
of prize-winning corn regardless of adaptability of that 
variety to the conditions under which it is to be grown, 
has often resulted in serious loss to the purchaser. The 
only safe way to get seed corn from a distance is to pur- 
chase a small amount and try it out for a few years in a 
small plot. If it produces a good yield of mature corn, 
a larger amount of seed corn can then be secured for 
seeding a larger acreage. Maturity is an important 
consideration. Immature corn, as pointed out in the 



84 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

paragraph on storage, is not to be desired in any event. 
Seemingly high yields at husking time may result in a 
much lower yield of inferior quality when properly dried 
out. Each farmer can with little time and expense 
conduct on his farm a variety test that will answer the 
question as to which variety is the most profitable for him 
to grow. A small plot may be laid off in the corner of 
the regular field and planted with several different varie- 
ties along with his own. A comparison of the yield of 
mature corn at harvest will decide the question. In a 
small plot two rows may be planted from one variety, 
the next two rows from another, and so on. It is neces- 
sary, however, to have some standard by which to measure 
the new varieties. This is best done by planting each 
fourth plot with home grown seed. This will serve as a 
check or standard with which to compare the new varieties. 
If it is not desirable to lay off the small area, the test can 
be made by planting a round with the planter through the 
field with one variety, and the next round with the seed 
of another, and so on. Each fourth round should be 
planted with home grown seed in order to note variations 
in soil, and to have a standard for comparison. Marked 
variations will usually be seen in a variety test in the 
general character of the plants, the date at which the 
tassels and silks appear, the time of maturity, and in 
yield. Professor C. G. Williams suggests the following 
method of determining the yield : ''In determining the 
yield per acre, each variety is compared with the check 
plots between which it grew, the number of bushels by 
which it exceeds or falls short of the check is determined, 
and this excess or shortage added to or subtracted from 
the average yield of all of the check plots." The variety 
that gives the highest yield of mature corn of good quality 



CORN OR MAIZE 85 

should be selected for perpetuation. Seed corn should 
not be selected from the variety test plots, for since corn 
is a cross-pollinating plant, the varieties growing side by 
side have intercrossed and the progeny of such seed would 
be a mixture. The variety test only points out the 
variety best adapted to the field in question, and the seed 
for planting the next year's crop should be secured from 
the same grower that furnished the seed for the test plot. 
66. Seed selection. — The most common method of 
selecting seed corn is that of laying aside the best appear- 
ing ears that are found during harvest or that are found 
here and there as the corn is fed from the crib during the 
winter or spring. Sometimes seed selection is delayed 
until spring, when the seed ears are picked from the crib. 
The best corn growers, however, practice field selection. 
Field selection is going into the field and selecting the 
ears from the standing stalks. There are several reasons 
why field selected seed is to be preferred to seed selected 
from the crib in the spring, or even to seed selected from 
the wagon at harvest time. It is not always the large, 
well-proportioned ear that one would naturally pick 
when selecting from the crib that produces the largest 
yield. In many cases these superior looking ears have 
been produced under extremely favorable conditions. 
Probably they have grown in a hill of only one stalk 
instead of three, perhaps on some unusually fertile spot, 
or over a tile drain, or under some abnormal conditions 
that were favorable to their growth. The merits of th'ese 
ears will not, in all probability, be reproduced in the 
progeny unless planted under the favorable conditions 
that produced them. In field selection only ears that are 
found growing under normal conditions of stand, fertility, 
and the like are selected. The excellence which these 



86 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



ears will possess is hereditary, and will, therefore, in all 
likelihood be transmitted to the progeny. The height 
of the plant, and the height at which the ear is carried 
on the stalk, should also be considered. Tall plants are 
not usually desirable when corn is grown for the grain, 

since tall corn is 
difficult to handle 
in cutting, and if 
harvested from the 
standing stalk, the 
ear is in an awkward 
position to husk. 
Selection of seed from 
plants carrying the 
ear at a medium 
height will after a 
few years produce 
a strain of corn in 
which most of the 
ears will be at a 
convenient height to 
husk. Likewise se- 
lection for medium 
height of stalk will 
develop plants of con- 
venient height to har- 
vest. If the corn is a little late for the average season, 
by selecting seed from the early maturing plants that 
will be found growing here and there over the field, one 
can in a few years have the general crop ripen a week 
or ten days earlier. Another thing that should be con- 
sidered in field selection of seed is the vigor of the plant. 
Some plants are easily blown over, while others are able 




Fig. 25. — Rack for storing seed corn. 



COBN OR MAIZE 87 

to carry their load and remain in an upright position 
until harvest time. One of the greatest advantages to be 
gained by fall selection of seed is the opportunity afforded 
it to thoroughly dry out before freezing weather comes. 
Seed corn if not well dried out before a hard freeze may 
have the vitality greatly impaired, and in some cases the 
germ may be killed. Seed corn should be stored in a well- 
ventilated room. The ears should be piled or hung up 
in such a manner as to permit a free circulation of air 
among them. During damp weather a little artificial heat 
will assist in drying them out. 

67. Some results of field selection. — At the Ne- 
braska Station, seed selected from a plot growing five plants 
per hill was compared with seed grown at the rate of three 
plants per hill and one plant per hill. The seed selected 
from these plots was planted the next season at the uni- 
form rate of three plants per hill. Three years' average 
gave the results shown in the table Ijelow : 

Seed from Yield Next Year when Planted at 

Rate of 3 Stalks per Hill 

1 stalk per hill 61.8 bushels 

3 stalks per hill ....... 62.2 bushels 

5 stalks per hill 64.4 bushels 

At the Ohio Station, seed selected in the field from plants 
growing under normal conditions of stand and fertility 
was compared with the seed selected from the wagon at 
harvest time. In selecting from the wagon the appearance 
of the ear was the only guide, since the conditions under 
which it had grown could not be determined. When 
planted the next year at a uniform rate of three kernels 
per hill the field selected seed produced 3.72 bushels of 
corn more per acre than that produced by the wagon 
selected seed. There are those who object to field selec- 



88 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

tion of seed, contending that ears removed from the 
stalk before cutting time are not fully mature. This 
objection may be overcome by marking ears desired for 
seed, before the corn is put into the shock, and separating 
them at husking time from the rest of the corn. It is 
well to select from the field a larger numl^er of ears than 
will be necessary to plant the next year's crop. This 
will permit the sorting over of the seed, and the dis- 
carding of undesirable ears or those with faulty germina- 
tion. 

68. Ear-to-row test. — Ears of corn vary greatly 
in size, shape, weight, and other ear characters. They 
also vary in productiveness. It would be a great conven- 
ience to the corn grower if he could by the appearance 
of an ear estimate with some degree of accuracy its 
ability to yield. This, however, has not been found 
possible with the present knowledge of the relation of ear 
characters to yield. The ear-to-row test is the only 
method of picking out the high yielding ears. '' This 
test consists in comparing the relative productiveness 
of a number of ears of corn when planted side by side, 
an ear or a part of an ear to a row. Ears for such tests 
may well be selected while ripening in the field, in order 
that the condition of growth may be noted, and only 
such ears chosen as give some reason for believing that 
their excellence may be due to something other than 
favorable environment." An ear-to-row test may be 
carried out in the corner of the regular corn field. The 
soil should be uniform in fertility, and if underdrained, 
the rows should run at right angles to the drain in order 
that all the rows will be affected alike. The rows for 
convenience may be made 50 hills long. Plant row No. 1 
with corn from ear No. 1, row No. 2 from ear No. 2, 



CORN OR MAIZE 



89 



until a row 50 hills long is planted from each ear that 
is to be tested. A selection of 50 ears makes a con- 
venient number for an ear-to-row test. Every tenth 
row should be used as a check row. Ten ears may be 
selected for this purpose. These same ten ears should be 
used in planting all of the check rows, each ear planting 
the same number of hills in each row. Check ear No. 1 




Fig. 26. — Remnants of an ear-to-row test. 



should be used in planting the first five hills in each check 
row. Check ear No. 2 should be used for the second 
five, check ear No. 3 for the third five, and so on until 
the fifty hills in each are planted, five hills from each of 
the ten ears. It is well to plant four or five kernels per hill 
in order to insure a perfect stand. When the plants are 
live or six inches high, each hill should be thinned down to 
three plants. More reliable results are secured when the 



90 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



test is made in duplicate, the second series of rows being 
some distance from the first. At harvest time each row 
is husked separately, and the yield is determined in the 
same way as in the variety test. Seed corn is not selected 
from the rows giving the highest yield, because cross- 
pollination has taken place, and probably the low as well 



V '*'|P*0"|^ 












-■->'-^>ir^ ^v 









Fig. 27. — A corn-breeding plot. Rows 1, 3, and 4 have been detasseled. 



as the high yielding ears are represented in the ears of 
each row. The ear-to-row test is only a method of picking 
out the highest yielding ears, and not for the production 
of seed corn. When the rows are planted, only a portion 
of the ear is used, the remainder being preserved for 
crossing the next year. 

69. The breeding plot. — The remnants of the four 
or five highest yielding ears are planted the next season 
in the breeding plot. This plot should be some distance 



J 



COBN OR MAIZE 



91 



from other corn fields, to prevent mixing. The plot 
necessarily must be small. Rows twenty-five hills in 
length and as many rows as the remnants will plant is 
the usual size. The remnant of the highest yielding ear 
is used as the sire, the three or four other remnants as 
the dam or female of the cross. The sire ear should be 
used to plant every third row. In order to make it reach 
as far as possible, these rows should be planted thinly, 
usually two kernels per hill. The remnants of the other 
ears are used to plant the rows between the sire rows. 




Fig. 28. — A multiplying plot, out of the reach of pollen from other com. 

When the tassels begin to appear, the plot should be 
visited each day and tassels removed from the middle 
rows. This will insure the pollen from the highest yield- 
ing ear fertilizing the plants produced from the remnant 
of the three next highest yielding ears. If the rows 
planted by each ear are recorded, the pedigree of the corn 
can be determined for each ear. At harvest time the 
rows from each are harvested separately. 

70. The multiplying plot. — The multiplying plot 
is planted next year from the ears grown in the detasseled 
rows. This plot, too, should be a distance from other 
corn fields. The multiplying plot, as the name indicates, 



92 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

is simply a plot to increase the supply of seed in order to 
plant an entire field the next year. Some of the best ears 
from the breeding plot and also from the multiplying 
plot should be taken back to the ear-to-row test each 
year. This method gives an opportunity for comparison 
of the improved strain with the general crop. 

71. Corn judging. — Within the past few years corn 
shows have become quite common throughout the corn 
growing sections of the country. They have done and are 
doing a great service in creating a wider interest in the 
study of corn growing, and in showing the possibilities 
of improving the quality of the crop. The general plan 
of conducting the contest has much to do with the bene- 
fits to be derived from the show. Too frequently, per- 
haps, the show evolves into a contest to determine which 
exhibitor has best solved the problem of the proper rate 
of planting to grow large ears, and of his ability to select 
a good show sample. Quite frequently it is said at a show 
by a defeated contestant, that, although he did not win 
the prize, he has the consolation of knowing that he 
produces more corn of a better quality per acre than does 
the exhibitor who carries off the prize. This, as has been 
pointed out in the paragraph on the rate of planting, is 
quite frequently due to the fact that many exhibitors have 
learned that corn when planted thinly produces a higher 
percentage of large, fine looking ears, than when planted 
at the normal rate, or at a rate that would produce a 
higher yield per acre. Many seedsmen plant thinly 
in order to grow a greater number of large, well-propor- 
tioned seed ears per acre. This practice, of course, as 
shown in the discussion of field selection, is not to be 
recommended, since the excellence of such ears is due to 
environment and not to heredity. The greatest service 



CORN OR MAIZE 93 

perhaps that has been and can be rendered by the corn 
show to the growers of the community is to be found 
in the lessons of the importance of maturity, the vitaUty 
of the seed corn, and the possibilities of improvement in 
the uniformity of the product. 




Fig. 29. — A good sample of show corn. 

INSECT AND FUNGOUS DISEASES 

72. Insects. — The farmer has many difficulties to over- 
come in growing a profitable crop of corn, and among them insect 
troubles often have no small place. Some kinds of insects are 
always present in the corn field, but the damage done by them is 
comparatively small, while others may appear in such numbers 
in certain years as to cause serious trouble and sometimes greatly 
reduce the yield. Of the many insects that attack the corn 
plant only a few can be discussed in this book. 

73. The wire-worm. — Almost every one has seen the 
beetles which when placed on their backs will jump up into the 
air with a clicking sound and light right side up. They are 
known as the " click beetle," and are the adult form of the wire- 
worm. The eggs are laid usually in grass land. The larvae 



94 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

which hatch from them require from three to five years to com- 
plete their growth. The second year after grass land has been 
planted in corn, the larvae feed upon the newly planted kernels 
and upon the roots of the young plants. Serious damage some- 
times results. Quite frequently it becomes necessary to replant 
the field. The larvae become full grown in midsummer and after 
pupation, which lasts three or four weeks, the adult beetles 
appear. The adults fly to the grass lands and deposit eggs for 
a new brood. No satisfactory method has been recommended 
to prevent their ravages. They may be held in check quite 
effectively by fall plowing, which kills many of the larvae, and 
also many of the adults. The practice of a short rotation, 
which allows the field to remain in grass but one year, will 
largely prevent their increase to such numbers as would seriously 
injure the corn crop. 

74. The grub-worm. — The large May beetles or June bugs 
which are numerous during early summer are the parent form 
of the white grub-worm. Like the click beetle, the June bug lays 
its eggs in the meadow and pasture lands, usually in June or July. 
The young grubs live upon the grass roots, and require about 
two years to become full grown. When sod lands are plowed 
and put into corn, the grubs, being deprived of the grass roots, 
attack the roots of the corn. If the field has been in grass for 
some time previous to plowing, the grubs may be numerous, and 
since there are so few corn plants in comparison to the grasses 
per acre, many grubs may be found at work on the roots of one 
corn plant. As many as 25 grubs have been found on one hill, 
in fields that were badly infested with them. When the grubs 
are numerous, they do serious damage, sometimes destroying the 
entire crop. The most effective means of controlling them is, 
as in the case of the wire-worm, the use of a short rotation and 
practicing summer or fall plowing. Sometimes if hogs are turned 
into the field they will follow the plow and destroy many of the 
grubs. 

75. The cut-worm. — - The cut-worm is a common foe of 
many farm and garden crops. It gets its name from its well- 
known habit of eating only as much as is necessary to cut off the 
plant, thus leaving a path of destruction as it proceeds from plant 
to plant. The adult form is a moth, which lays its eggs princi- 
pally in sod lands. The eggs are laid in midsummer and the 



CORN OR MAIZE 95 

» 

larva becomes partially grown before winter. After passing the 
winter in the ground, it wakes up in the spring and lays low the 
plants that come in its way. There is no practical means of 
controlling its attacks upon the corn. A mixture of wheat bran, 
Paris green, and molasses may be used effectively in controlling 
it on small areas, but this is hardly practicable in the corn field. 

76. The corn-root louse. — The corn-root lice are very 
interesting insects. They are interesting because the ants which 
so carefully guard and care for them are often given credit for the 
damage done. If a nest of the small brown ants is broken open 
in the fall or winter, usually there will be found the eggs of the 
corn-root louse carefully stored away. When spring comes, the 
ants carry the lice eggs to the roots of the smart weeds, where 
they hatch and the larvae feed upon the roots. If corn is planted 
near by, the ants will carry the lice to the roots of the young corn 
plants on which they will feed, and if they are plentiful, will 
cause the corn to have a stunted appearance and the leaves will 
turn red and yellow. When such areas are seen in the corn field, 
usually the ants are credited with the injury, since they are seen 
busily engaged about the base of the corn plant. The facts are, 
however, that the ants are only indirectly responsible for the 
injury. They care for and protect the lice because the latter 
excrete from a pair of small tubes on the back part of the abdomen 
a sweet, honej^-like fluid upon which the ants feed with great 
relish. So long have they looked after the welfare of the lice 
that the latter are now dependent upon them, and if the ants are 
destroyed, the lice soon perish. The destruction of the ants, 
therefore, is the means of controlling the lice. This may be done 
by digging up the nest in winter or by killing them by pouring a 
quantity of carbon bisulphide into the nest and covering it over 
with a blanket to retain the fumes. 

77. The corn root-worm. — Growers often wonder why their 
corn blows over in some fields and not in others. If the corn that 
blows over is in a field that has been in corn for two years or more 
in succession, the corn root- worm may be the cause of the trouble. 
This insect has been a serious pest in many sections of the coun- 
try, particularly in those sections where rotation of crops is not 
regularly practiced. The eggs of the corn root- worm are laid in 
the ground near the base of the stalk sometime in the fall. They 
hatch in June and the root- worm feeds on the roots of the growing 



96 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

corn plant, first on the small roots, then burrowing into the larger 
ones. The root system is seriously injured if the worms are 
plentiful, and a rain with some wind will cause the corn to blow 
over. The worms are about one-half inch in length with a red 
or brown head. In late summer they enter the pupa stage and 
soon come out as adult beetles. The adult beetles are about 
one-fourth of an inch long. The adult of the Northern corn 
root-worm is a plain grass-green in color, while that of the South- 
ern corn root-worm is yellowish green with twelve black spots on 
the back. The larvae of the two species are very similar. The 
adults feed on the corn silks in the fall, and the farmer often 
thinks they are seriously affecting the corn, but they have done 
all the damage they can do, except to lay their eggs which will 
hatch the following spring. The Southern corn root-worm is not 
common in the Northern States. The Northern corn root-worm 
is more common and often it does considerable damage. The 
latter is easily controlled because the larvae feed on no other 
roots except those of the corn, so a simple rotation will starve 
them out. In the case of the Southern corn root-worm the 
rotation of crops will not control the insect to so great an extent, 
because the larvae of this species feed on the roots of other plants. 
78. Fungous diseases. — Wherever corn is grown, corn smut 
is found. This fungus attacks the ear, tassel, leaves, or the stalk 
of the plant, developing at maturity into a large mass filled with 
small, powdery black spores. The fungus may attack the plant 
any time after it is a couple of feet in height until it nears matur- 
ity. The spores may remain in the field from the previous year, 
or they may be carried there in manure or by the wind. During 
the summer they are blown about by the wind, and fall upon the 
growing plant. If they light upon the tender part of the plant, 
and if moisture is present, they start to grow. Therefore the 
tassel, silk, brace roots, and the base of the leaves afford the most 
favorable locations for growth. The damage done each year 
has been estimated at one or two per cent of the crop, while in a 
year of extremely favorable conditions for it, the loss may be 
much greater. The treatment of the seed before planting to kill 
the spores does not greatly assist in controlling the disease, since 
the spores are carried from field to field by the wind. The only 
effective means of controlling it is by going into the field several 
times during the season and cutting off and destroying the 



CORN OR MAIZE 97 

diseased portion of the stalk. Corn stover affected with smut is 
thought by many farmers to cause illness to animals to which it is 
fed. In experiments to determine whether or not the corn smut 
is the cause of illness among animals, it was fed in comparatively 
large amounts to groups of animals, and the results carefully 
noted. In no case did the animals show any effects from the 
feeding of the smut. 

79. Ear-rots. — It is the very general opinion of farmers that 
the ear-rots of corn are caused by adverse weather conditions. 
Careful studies of these diseases will show that they are caused 
by a fungous growth, and while the weather conditions may be 
favorable or unfavorable for the growth of fungus, if is not the 
direct cause of the trouble. There are several kinds of ear-rots, 
but their appearance on the ear is so similar as to be generally 
regarded as one form. The most common is the Diplodia, or 
dry rot, which attacks the husks, kernels, and the cob of the corn, 
causing the husks to stick to the ear. The ear becomes dark in 
color, often nearly black, except for the white mold-like growth 
which is abundant between the rows of kernels. It is a common 
practice at husking time to throw the ears of corn affected with 
this disease on the ground. This practice is the means of spread- 
ing the disease and giving the best opportunity for its being 
carried over the winter. The spores from the ears thrown on the 
ground spread to the corn stalks, where they make a slight growth. 
The next year the spores are spread by the wind to the growing 
corn, where, if weather conditions are favorable, they develop 
into the disease. The Illinois Experiment Station has found 
that stalks, after having been plowed under for two years, still 
retain the spores that will germinate under favorable conditions. 
This station, therefore, recommends that diseased ears be de- 
stroyed. It is also a good plan to burn the stalks on a field that is 
badly affected. It was found, further, that corn grown in a 
rotation was not so badly affected as that grown under a con- 
tinuous cropping system. 

Beside the dry rot, there are several species of fusarium that 
attack the ear in much the same way. The casual observer would 
not be able to distinguish them from the dry rot. 

80. Rust and bacterial diseases. — Corn is affected by 
several kinds of leaf rusts and bacterial diseases, but the damage 
done is usually small. 

H 



98 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

81. Protection of seed corn from crows and rodents. — 
Crows and rodents sometimes do considerable damage to corn 
by digging up the newly planted kernels or by pulling up the 
young plants to get the kernel. Trouble from these sources can 
be largely overcome by treating the seed corn before planting 
with coal or pine tar. The tar, slightly warm, should be applied 
to the shelled seed at the rate of about one tablespoonful to each 
nine or ten quarts of corn. Stir the mixture until each kernel is 
covered with a thin coat of tar, then add a handful of air slaked 
lime or wood ashes, and stir again. The ashes or lime prevent the 
kernels from sticking together. After drying, the seed is ready 
to plant. 



CHAPTER V 

WHEA T 

Wheat culture has occupied the attention of man ever 
since he progressed far enough to record his history. At 
the beginning of records some 3000 years B.C., wheat cul- 
ture occupied an important place in the affairs of man. 

82. History. — In very ancient Egyptian monuments, 
older than the Hebrew Scriptures, kernels of this cereal 
have been found. Records of ancient China show that 
wheat was cultivated there 2700 years B.C., while the lake 
dwellers of Western Switzerland cultivated wheat as early 
as the Stone Age. The existence of different names for 
wheat in most ancient languages gives reasons for believing 
that it was cultivated long before the dawn of recorded 
history. The development of wheat, therefore, has been 
coincident with that of civilization. Its importance to the 
civilized nations to-day is perhaps no greater than it was 
centuries ago, with its more primitive culture, to a more 
primitive people. The origin of the wheat plant is largely 
a matter of speculation. The ancient Chinese considered 
it a gift direct from Heaven. The Egyptians attributed its 
origin to the mythical god of the Nile, while the Greeks 
believed it to have been presented to their nation by 
Ceres, the goddess of Agriculture. Botanists are not 
, agreed as to the primitive plants from which it has devel- 
oped. Wheat plants growing wild have been found, but 
it has never been clearly shown that they were not planted 



100 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

by roaming tribes in their journeys across the country. 
Recently, however, a wild wheat has been found growing 
in the eastern Mediterranean countries which is thought 
by some to be an ancestral or closely related form, from 
which, or from a common ancestor of which, our present 
day wheat has developed. The wheat plant is so old 
that it is a most difficult task to determine its ancient 
family record. It is believed by De Candolle to have had 
its origin in the Valley of the Tigris and the Euphrates, 
and from there to have spread at first into China and 
Egypt, and later to have been carried, with the spread 
of civilization, into all temperate parts of the world. 
So far as is known, it was not grown in America until 
after the discovery of this continent by Columbus. 

83. Botanical characters. — Wheat is an annual belong- 
ing to the tribe Hordse of the grass family. The prom- 
inent characters that distinguish the species of this tribe 
are the one to many flowered spikelets which are sessile, 
and arranged alternately upon the rachis, forming a spike. 
Rye, barley, and rice are closely related to wheat. Wheat 
belongs to the genus Triticum, of which it is the only 
prominent species, and is characterized by one spikelet 
at each joint of the rachis, the outer glumes of which 
terminate in a beak. The flowering glume may have 
either short or long awns, or may be awnless. Wheat 
may be either a fall or a spring annual, some varieties 
being adapted to fall and others to spring seeding. When 
the seeding is done in the fall, it is called winter wheat ; 
when seeded in the spring, it is called spring wheat. 

84. The roots. — The roots of the wheat plant, like 
those of the corn, may be divided into temporary and 
permanent systems. When a kernel of wheat starts to 
grow, it sends out a whorl of three roots, which form the 



WHEAT 



101 



temporary root system. After the plumule unfolds 
above the ground, the permanent roots start out from a 
node below the surface. For a short time both the 
permanent and the temporary roots serve the needs of 
the young plant, but as the permanent system develops 
the temporary system withers 
and dies. The permanent roots 
increase rapidly in length and 
develop into a complex fibrous 
root sj^stem, which serves the 
plant throughout the remainder 
of its life. The permanent roots 
branch freely, as many as eight 
to ten branches being given off 
from one inch of the main roots. 
Most of the root system of the 
wheat plant is in the upper 15 
to 20 inches of the soil. Below 
this depth it does not branch 
freely, but sends long runners 
down deep into the subsoil. 
The depth to which the roots 
will penetrate depends largely 
upon the physical condition of 
the subsoil; and upon the loca- 
tion of the water table during 
the growing season. In loose 

soils, with the water table several feet below the surface, 
wheat roots may go down 6 or 7 feet or more. The roots 
of the permanent system do not vary greatly in diameter, 
being about the same size their entire length. 

85. The stem or culm. — During the early life of the 
plant the internodes are short, giving at this time the ap- 




FiG. 30. — Diagram showing 
how the plant increases in height 
by lengthening of the inter- 
nodes. 



102 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



pearance of a leafy, low-growing plant. A little later, 
however, the internodes elongate quite rapidly, pushing 
the nodes farther apart and lengthening the stem. Before 
this stage begins, buds appear at the lower nodes and 
develop by lengthening their internodes 
into full-sized stems along with the 
lengthening of the main stem. This is 
called tillering or stooling. Thus one 
seed normally produces several stems, 
sometimes as many as a dozen or more. 
The number of tillers produced depends 
upon several factors. Some varieties 
naturally produce more tillers than 
others. Thin seeding promotes the 
growth of a larger number of tillers 
than a thicker rate of seeding. Winter 
wheat usually tillers more than spring 
wheat. Poor or infertile soils retard the 
production of tillers. Thus it is seen 
that many more heads or spikes are pro- 
duced on a given area than there were 
kernels planted, the number depending 
upon the several factors above mentioned. 
The length of the stem, when fully 
grown, varies with the variety and soil. 
Some varieties grow only 2.5 to 3 feet 
in height, while others under the same 
conditions may reach a height of 4 or 5 feet. Aside 
from the variation in the length of the stem, there is 
also found variation in the number of tillers, thickness 
of the stem wall, and in the number of nodes. In describ- 
ing or identifying varieties of wheat, the color of the stem, 
particularly that of the upper internode, is of considerable 




Fig. 31. — Dia- 
gram showing stool- 
ing or tillering in 
wheat. 



WHEAT 



103 



service. The stem of the wheat plant in most varieties 
is hollow, excepting at the node, where it is solid. In 
some few varieties the stem is partly or entirely filled with 
pith. The number of pounds of straw required to pro- 
duce a bushel of grain varies 
greatly with the variety and 
with the soil. At the Ohio 
Station, with 45 varieties, dur- 
ing a period of 13 years, the 
weight of straw varied from 92 
to 132 pounds per bushel of 
grain, the average being about 
105 pounds of straw per bushel 
of grain. When manure or 
fertilizer was applied at this 
station, there was a greater 
proportionate increase in the 
weight of the straw than in 
the grain. 

86. The leaves. — As in the 
corn plant, the leaves are ar- 
ranged alternately, one leaf 
growing from each node of the 
stem. While the plant dur- 
ing its early stage of growth 
has a leafy appearance, after 
the internodes have become 
full length, the leaves appear 
to be few in number. This is due to the fact that they are 
then arranged on a lengthened stem. The leaves of wheat 
are short and narrow as compared with those of the corn 
plant. They vary in different varieties in length, width, 
smoothness, and prominence of veins. The leaf sheaths of 



1 

If 

i 

J 

,1' 


\ 1 


i 


/ 


i ^1 



Fig. 



32. — Variation in number 
of culms per plant. 



104 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



wheat and rye are hairy, while in barley and oats they are 
smooth. The lower leaves wither and die as the plant 
approaches maturity, and at the beginning of ripening only 
the upper leaf and the topmost internode are green. 
87. The spikelets. — A spikelet is composed of two 
outer glumes, inclosing from two to 
five flowers, each with a flowering 
glume and palea. In the wheat plant 
only one spikelet grows from each joint 
of the rachis. The rachis may be de- 
fined as that part of the stem which 
passes up through the head. The 
joints of the rachis are close together, 
thus forming a compact head or spike. 
The number of spikelets per head 
varies with different varieties, the 
thickness of planting, the condition of 
the soil, and with the weather. The 
number varies from 10 to as many as 50 
or more. In fertile soils more spike- 
lets are produced per head than in poor 
soils. A thin rate of seeding also favors 
the production of a larger number of 
spikelets. Some varieties naturally 
have a larger number of spikelets per 
head than do other varieties. At the 
base of the head there are usually one or more sterile 
spikelets, — that is, spikelets in which the flowers do not 
become fertiUzed and produce kernels. This varies with 
the growing season and with the rate of planting. Un- 
favorable growing seasons and a thick rate of seeding are 
favorable for a large number of sterile spikelets. The 
spike or head may vary in length and in shape. The 




Fig. 33. — Variation 
in size of head and 
number of spikelets. 



WHEAT 



105 



shape may be tapering to the tip, tapering both ways 
from the middle, tapering from the top to the bottom, or 
it may be uniform throughout the length of the spike. 
The outer glume in the wheat spikelet is oval in shape and 
terminates in a beak which varies in sharpness and length. 




F/okver/r?^ O/ame 



Fig. 34. — ■ A spikelet of wheat. No. 1 shows parts in position as they 
appear on the head. No. 2 shows parts dissected. 

The outer glumes also vary in color and they may be 
velvety or hairy, or smooth, depending upon variety. 

88. The flowers. — Each flower is inclosed in a flower- 
ing glume and palea. The flowering glume is larger than 
the palea and is on the outer side of the kernel, that is, 
next to the outer glume. The tip of the flowering glume 
in some varieties is extended into an awn or beard, while 
in others no awn appears. The latter are called beard- 



106 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

less, awnless, or bald varieties. The palea is a thin, mem- 
braneous glume, the edges of which are folded inside of 
the flowering glume. The flower proper is inclosed within 
and consists of the ovulary, stigma, and stamens. The 
stamens are three in number, the filament of which is 
short before fertilization, bearing at the top an elongated 
anther. The stigma is composed of two branches, each 
provided with tiny, feathery branches to catch the pollen. 
Wheat is a close or self-pollinated plant. When the time 
comes for fertilization, the filaments of the stamens rapidly 
elongate, and in so doing, upset the anthers, which spill 
the pollen on the stigmas. While the spikelet may have 
from 2 to 5 flowers, usually only 2 or 3 develop. Those 
which do not develop are called sterile flowers. When 
seeded thickly or on poor soil, or if not favored with good 
growing weather, fewer flowers develop. Usually 2 or 3 
flowers of each spikelet develop, however, and under 
favorable conditions as many as 5 may mature grains. 
The number of kernels per spike, therefore, varies greatly 
in the same field, or even in different spikes of the same 
plant. In the threshing of wheat, the kernel is liberated 
from the outer and flowering glumes and from_ the palea, 
all of which taken together are called the chaff. 

89. The kernel. — After fertilization the ovulary devel- 
ops into an oblong grain, with a deep groove or furrow 
on the side next to the palea. Great variation in size, 
shape, color, and hardness is found in the kernels of differ- 
ent varieties. Shght, or in some cases marked, variations 
are found among the kernels of a single spike. Upon 
examination of the kernel, a lot of short hairs will be found 
at the tip. This is called the brush. If a cross-section 
be made, it will be seen that the kernel is made up of several 
distinct parts. The outside covering of the kernel is 



WHEAT 



107 



made up of three layers, which are separated only with 
difficulty ; taken together they are called the bran. In 
the milling of wheat, for the making of flour, the bran is 
removed and used as stock feed, and does not enter into 
the making of flour. The bran makes up about 5 per cent 
of the entire kernel. Surrounding the kernel, immediately 
under the bran, is a single layer of large cells called the 
aleurone layer, comprising 3 to 4 per cent of the kernel. 
In the milling of wheat this aleurone layer is not included 
in the flour. Under the aleurone layer lies the endosperm, 
which is made up of thin walled starch cells. The en- 
dosperm makes by far the largest part of the kernel, 
from 82 to 85 per cent, most of which enters into the 
making of flour. At the base of the kernel at the side 
opposite the crease will be found the small embryo or 
germ. The germ of the wheat kernel is small in propor- 
tion to the size of the kernel, when compared with that of 
corn. 

TYPES OF WHEAT 

90. Classification. — The cultivated species of the genus 
Triticum may be grouped into eight distinct classes or 
types. According to almost all botanists, only three of 
the types are considered as distinct species, the others 
being sub-species. The following outline, arranged by 
Hunt, shows the relationship of the eight types of wheat : 



Triticum ' 



monocoecum — (1) einkorn 

spelta — (2) spelt 
dicoccuni — (3) emmer 

vulgare — (4) common wheat 
compactum — (5) club wheat 
turgidum — (6) poulard wheat 
durum — (7) durum wheat 
. polonicum — Polish wheat 



stativium 



tenax < 



108 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



91. Einkorn. — Einkorn is the German for one grain, 
and this type of wheat is so named because, in most the 
common varieties, it has but one grain per spikelet. 
Einkorn is a short-strawed, narrow- 
leafed plant, with a compact, heavily 
bearded spike. It seldom grows to a 
height of more than three feet, the straw 
is stiff and carries the head erect even 
when ripe, thus giving it a different ap- 
pearance when growing in the field from 
that of our common wheat. Einkorn 
is thought to be one of the more prim- 
itive types, and more closely related to 
the original forms than other types. It 
is grown in a limited way in the poor, 
stony soils of southern Europe. It has 
never been grown in the United States 
except in an experimental way. 

92. Spelt. — When seen growing in 
the field, spelt looks very much like our 
common wheat ; but if we examine the 
spikelets, they will be found to be quite 
different from those of common wheat. 
The spikelets usually contain two ker- 
nels, which are tightly held within the 
glumes. When spelt is threshed, un- 
like common wheat, the kernels are not 
separated from the glumes, but are 
retained in them. Threshing does not even remove the 
spikelets from the rachis, but a portion of it is broken off 
and retained by each spikelet. Spelt, therefore, cannot 
well be used for making flour, but can be fed to live stock 
without further threshing. It is not grown in the United 




Fig. 35. — Einkorn. 



WHEAT 



109 



States or in Canada, but it is grown in southern Europe, 
where it is used as feed for live stock. There are both 
spring and winter varieties, some of which 
are bearded, but almost all of w^hich are 
beardless. It is doubtful if spelt will be ex- 
tensively grown in any part of the United 
States. 

93. Emmer. — Emmer is often confused 
with, and sometimes goes under the name of, 
spelt. The two types are, however, quite 

different. The stem or 
culm of emmer is quite 
frequently filled with pith, 
the leaves are broader, and 
it is more heavily bearded 
than spelt. The spikelets 
of spelt are farther apart 
on the rachis than those 
of emmer, those of the 
latter being quite close to- 
gether, giving a compact 
appearance to the spike. 
Like spelt, the kernels of 
emmer are retained in the 
glumes after threshing. Emmer is not 
used for the making of flour, but is 
useful as a stock feed. It is grown to 
some extent in the northern states of 
the Great Plains of the United States, 
where it usually goes by the name of 
spelt. It is more drought-resistant than many of the other 
grain plants and therefore may develop into a useful 
plant in the semi-arid regions of this country. In Europe 




Fig. 36.— 
Spelt. 



Fig. 37. — A head of 
emmer. 



110 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



it is grown to some extent in Russia, Germany, Italy, 
Spain, and in a very limited way in other countries. 

94. Common wheat. — As the name indicates, this 
is the type most commonly grown in the wheat-growing 
countries of the world. The botanical 
characters of this type have been dis- 
cussed in the preceding paragraph. The 
cultural methods and uses will be dis- 
cussed in the following pages of the chapter. 
95. Club wheat. — This type of wheat 
gets its name from the short, compact 
heads, which are either square or larger 
at the top and taper toward the base. 
In this type of wheat the spikelets are 
very close together on the rachis, so close 
that sometimes they almost stand at right 
angles to it. Three or four grains usu- 
ally develop in each spikelet. They 
may be either white or red, the color 
depending upon the variety. Club wheat 
has a short, stiff straw, which is less 
liable to lodge than the varieties of 
common wheat. It is also less likely 
to shatter, because the glumes hold the 
kernels more tightly, and even when 
the crop is fully ripe, little shattering 
occurs during harvesting. This type of wheat, therefore, 
is well adapted to the Pacific Coast region, where, on 
account of the absence of rainfall, it may be, and often 
is, left standing in the field for several weeks after ripening 
before it is harvested. Club wheats are heavy yielders 
as compared with the common wheats. While the heads 
are short, the spikelets are close together, and more 




Fig. 38. — Club 
wheat. 



WHEAT 111 

kernels are usually produced in the spikelets than in the 
spikelets of common wheats. Their general methods 
of culture are similar to those of the common wheats. 

96. Poulard wheat. — Poulard wheats are distinguished 
by their tall, stiff straws, sometimes filled with pith, 
broad, hairy, or velvety leaves, broad heads with short 
bristly beards, and large, hard kernels. Poulard wheats 
are not grown, except in an experimental way, in the 
United States. They are grown in Turkey, Russia, 
France, Egypt, and other countries bordering the Medi- 
terranean Sea. The flour made from them is used to some 
extent in the manufacture of macaroni, and in the making 
of bread, by mixing it with flour from common wheat. 

97. Durum wheat. — This type is very similar to the 
poulard wheats, some varieties, in fact, being hard to 
distinguish from them. It differs from the poulard 
wheat in having smooth leaves, long, heavy beards, and 
rather pointed, hard, semi-transparent kernels. The 
beards of durum wheat, together with the shape of the 
head, give to it, when seen at a little distance, the appear- 
ance of bearded barley. The kernels are the hardest of 
any of the wheats. Durum wheats are nearly all spring 
varieties, adapted to hot, dry climates, and grow well in 
soils that are slightly alkaline. They are, therefore, well 
adapted to the semi-arid sections of the Western States, 
and will grow in soils that contain too much alkali' to 
grow the common varieties. It has been said that the 
introduction of the durum wheats into the United States 
has greatly increased our annual production of wheat by 
extending the wheat-growing area into the dry alkali 
regions, where the common varieties would not produce 
a profitable yield. They have been grown in the United 
States only within the past 30 years. Durum wheat is 



112 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



used largely in the making of macaroni, and is often 
called macaroni wheat. As yet it is not used to a great 
extent in the making of bread flour. Some mills, however, 
have milled it and placed the flour upon the market, 
and in the opinion of many, bread made from it is to be 
preferred to that made from common wheat. Durum 
wheat is also grown in Central and 
South America, Russia, and the Medi- 
terranean countries of Europe. 

98. Polish wheat. — Polish wheat 
has a tall, smooth, pithy straw, a 
large chaffy-appearing head, due to the 
loosely arranged spikelets, and large, 
long kernels. On account of the shape 
of the kernels, this type of wheat is 
sometimes called giant or Jerusalem 
rye. Polish wheat is well adapted to 
arid districts, but it is not grown in 
the United States except in a small 
way. It is grown in Russia and the 
countries of the Mediterranean region. 
It is not well adapted for bread-mak- 
ing, unless mixed with common wheat, 
and is used almost exclusively in the 
making of macaroni, spaghetti, and 
other similar products. 
99. Bread wheats. — Of the eight types of wheat, 
only four, — namely, common, club, durum, and emmer, — ■ 
are at present of economic importance in the United 
States. Of the eight types, only two find their greatest 
usefulness in the making of bread or pastries. These 
are the common and club wheats, which supply not only 
the United States, but the whole world, wherever wheat 




Fig. 39. — Polish 
wheat. 



WHEAT 113 

bread is used. Durum, poulard, and Polish are used only 
in a limited way in the making of bread, their greatest 
usefulness being found in the manufacture of macaroni, 
spaghetti, and other similar products. Emmer, spelt, 
and einkorn are used in the feeding of live stock. Bread 
wheats and those used in the making of macaroni may be 
classed in several different ways. They may be divided 
into two groups based upon the time of sowing, viz. 
spring or winter wheats ; based on the structure of the 
kernel, viz. hard and soft ; according to their uses, 
viz. bread and macaroni ; according to the color of the 
grain, viz. red and white. Most often the classification 
used is a combination. Thus spring wheat may be either 
white or red, hard or soft, used either for bread or maca- 
roni. 

THE USES OF WHEAT 

100. General uses. — The wheat crop is perhaps 
more closely related to the welfare of mankind than is 
any other crop. Almost all of the grain from the world's 
wheat crop is used in the manufacture of flour for human 
consumption, although a small amount of it is used 
in the feeding of animals, the grain for this purpose being 
principally that of poor quality and unsuitable to use in 
the making of flour. In the milling of wheat flour, several 
by-products result which are important live stock feeds, 
and the straw also is used for the feeding and bedding of 
animals. In its chemical composition and palatability, 
the wheat grain ranks high as a feed for live stock, but the 
high price per bushel which it commands for flour-making 
purposes prevents, excepting in years of heavy yield, 
its use as feed for domestic animals. The milling of wheat, 
the grades and kinds of flour, and the uses of the by- 



114 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

products of milling will be briefly taken up in the following 
paragraphs. 

101. The evolution of the flour mill. — The story of the 
processes through which wheat passes, from the time it 
reaches the mill until it appears on our tables as bread 
or other baked foods, is a long one. It might be interest- 
ing to trace very briefly the evolution of the flour mill, 
from the time when the first miller, in prehistoric times, 
took the wheat grain from the stalk and used his teeth 
as bur stones. The simplest milling device of which we 
know is the hand-stone, consisting of a hollow stone 
into which the grain was placed, and a crusher with 
which to pound it. Four thousand years later came the 
invention of the saddle-stone, a marked improvement 
over the hand-stone. In using this device the grain was 
placed on the concave surface of the lower stone, and 
rubbed by the upper stone, which worked backward and 
forward, and not by rolling or pounding. The saddle- 
stone was in very general use, as is proved by the pre- 
historic remains of almost every European race. A 
contemporary of the saddle-stone was the mortar, used 
by the Greeks and other nations. 

The first complete grinding machine came with the 
invention of the quern, shortly before the beginning of 
the Christian era. Here the grain was ground with a cir- 
cular motion, and the two stones, instead of being loose, 
were fastened together. At first the grinding surfaces 
were flat, but later they were grooved. A handle, fitted 
into a hole drilled in the upper stone, was the means by 
which the miller caused the upper stone to revolve upon 
the lower. The quern is still commonly used in parts of 
Europe, Asia, China, and Japan. 

Women were the millers of the races for many centuries. 



WHEAT 115 

Later it became the custom to compel the slaves and crim- 
mals to grind the flour and bake the bread. Still later 
cattle furnished the motive power, and following the cattle- 
mill came the water-mill, first used by the Greeks about 
50 years B.C. Not until several hundred years later was 
the windmill invented, and from the time when it first 
came into use, great improvements were made in it over 
the original type, and its use was rapidly extended. In 
1784 we have the invention of the steam-mill in London. 
In the year 1870 there was introduced in Minnesota a 
machine which was to revolutionize the milling industry 
in this country. The purifier, which was a machine for 
separating middlings and flour, enabled the miller of the 
Northwest to make acceptable flour from spring wheat, 
which had hitherto been despised on account of its dark 
color. During all this time the grinding surfaces of the 
milling machines had been mill-stones, but in 1878 there 
was introduced into this country the roller-mill, which 
marked the greatest of all advances in the milling busi- 
ness. 

102. Modern milling. — In modern milling there are 
three fundamental processes, viz. cleaning, tempering, 
and grinding. Each of these three main processes is com- 
posed of several minor processes. The object of cleaning 
is to remove all dust or dirt and foreign seeds. Special 
machinery is used to rid the wheat of foreign seeds, after 
which the grain is either dry-cleaned by being run through 
scourers, or else it is washed and dried. The next process 
is tempering the grain by the application of heat and mois- 
ture, in the form of steam or water, or both. This toughens 
the bran so that it will not crumble into fine particles, but 
will break off in large pieces. Then comes the milling 
proper, which is quite a complicated process and cannot 



116 FIELD CROP PBODUCTION 

be explained here in detail. The grains are run, first 
between corrugated iron rollers, where they are cut and 
broken, but not crushed. This is called the first break, 
after which the wheat is sifted several times to separate a 
part of the interior from the rest of the kernel. The scalp- 
ings, as the bran and adhering portions of the interior part 
of the grain are called, are then run through another set of 
rollers, with finer corrugations, and again sifted. This 
process is repeated until no more of the interior may be^ 
separated. The interior of the grain thus removed is called 
middlings. The middlings are run through the middlings 
purifier. This removes the germ and small particles of 
bran, after which the middlings are ground between 
smooth rollers, sifted, and reground until they are of the 
required fineness, which an expert is able to determine by 
the feel and color of the flour. 

103. Grades and kinds of fiour. — Many different grades 
of flour result from the modern processes of milling, based 
upon the purity of the product, that is, freedom from germ 
and bran particles. The finest flour is the patent grade, 
which may be further graded into first and second patent, 
while the lowest grade is known as red dog. In all of the 
large mills, and in many of the smaller ones, great care is 
taken to maintain uniform quality in the flour. For this 
purpose an expert is employed to make actual baking tests 
of grain as it comes to the elevator, grinding the samples 
of wheat in a small mill made for that purpose. He com- 
pares each bake with that made from a standard flour put 
out by the mill. 

There is some little difference in the composition of the 
hard or spring wheat flour of the Northwest and the soft 
or winter wheat flour, the spring wheat flour being stronger, 
that is, containing a higher percentage of gluten, the pres- 



WHEAT IIT 

ence of which enables the yeast-leavened loaf to retain its 
shape. The red winter wheat flour is softer, containing 
more starch and less gluten, and thus is better flour for 
quick breads, cake, pastry, etc., although the best grades 
of red winter wheat flour will make very acceptable yeast 
bread of excellent flavor, texture, and shape. Many millers 
now follow the practice of blending spring and winter 
wheats in making flour, and thus get a very satisfactory 
flour for general purposes. The very soft wheats of the 
Pacific Coast, containing a high percentage of starch, and 
being very weak in gluten, are used almost entirely in the 




Fig. 40. — Loaves of bread illustrating the baking qualities of flour made 
from different varieties of wheat. 

making of pastry flour. Durum wheat flour has in the 
past been used chiefly in the making of macaroni and 
similar products, being especially well adapted to this use 
on account of the very high percentage of gluten which 
it contains. It is quite likely, however, that it will soon 
come into common use as bread flour. Bread made from 
durum flour is a rich creamy color, and has an excellent 
flavor. 

It should be noted that there are great variations in 
wheat of the same kind, especially the red winter wheats, 
as to yield, and also as to bread-making qualities. The 
baking of bread with flour made from certain varieties of 



118 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

wheat will result in a loaf of good color and shape, fine 
texture, even grain, and excellent flavor, while that made 
from another variety of this same sort of wheat may give a 
loaf gray in color, coarse-textured, poor in flavor, and of 
poor shape. These differences are due mainly to the 
quality and quantity of the gluten present. A great 
opportunity exists for the farmer to improve the bread- 
making qualities of his wheat, as well as its yield. 

Graham flour is wheat meal made by grinding the whole 
wheat kernel. As a matter of fact, however, there is very 
little true Graham flour on the market, the so-called 
Graham flour being usually a mixture of a poor grade of 
white flour and bran. 

True whole wheat flour is similar to Graham flour, but 
contains only the inner layer of bran, and since the cellu- 
lose is in very finely divided particles, it is not nearly so 
irritating to sensitive digestive organs as is the bran in 
Graham flour. 

104. By-products of milling. — Usually about 70 to 80 per 
cent of the wheat kernel, depending upon the variety of wheat, 
the milling process to which it is subjected, and the physical 
character of the grain, enters into the making of flour, the 
remainder forming the by-products. The principal by-prod- 
ucts of the milling of wheat are bran, shorts, and middlings. 
Sometimes the lowest grade flour, called red dog, is considered a 
by-product and is used for feeding live stock. The bran is the 
outside covering of the kernel, together with the aleurone layer, 
and a small amount of adherent portions of the endosperm not 
removed in the milling process. In the milling of wheat some of 
the bran is reduced to rather fine particles, and this, when sepa- 
rated from the coarser bran, is known as shorts. The middlings 
contain a greater proportion of endosperm and usually more of 
the germ than do the bran and shorts. The germ or embryo, 
containing a high percentage of fat and being comparatively high 
in protein, does not enter into the making of flour, since it injures 



WHEAT 



119 



the keeping quality of the latter, but is removed during milling 
and may be added to any one of the above feeds. The by-prod- 
ucts are excellent feed for live stock and command for this 
purpose a high price upon the market. Their relative com- 
position may be seen from the following table : 



Entire grain 
Bran . . 
Shorts . . 
Middlings . 
Red dog 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



73.7 
53.9 

56.8 
60.4 
56.2 



Protein 



12.2 
15.4 
14.9 
12.1 
19.9 



Fats 



1.7 
4.0 
4.5 
4.0 
6.2 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 

105. The world's production. — For the five years 
1908-12, the world's wheat crop has been approximately 
3500 million })ushels. Of this amount, Europe produced 
over 1800 million bushels, or more than 50 per cent of the 
world's crop. North America ranks second, with a yield 
of 822 million bushels, a little less than one-fourth of the 
world's crop. The other continents contributed as fol- 
lows : Asia, 480 million bushels. South America, 185 
million bushels, Australia, 85 million bushels, and Africa, 
75 million bushels. Of the European countries, Russia 
is the leading wheat-producing country, producing an 
average annual yield, during the above five years, of 594 
million bushels. Austria-Hungary ranks second, with 
233 million bushels, France third, with 316 million bushels, 
Italy and Germany each produce 170 million bushels, and 
Spain 130 million bushels. Of the other European coun- 
tries, Roumania and the United Kingdom alone produced 
comparatively large amounts. In North America, the 



120 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



United States produces 643 million bushels, or almost 
80 per cent of the total crop, Canada 168 million bushels, 
and Mexico 11 million bushels. The United States, for 
the five years 1908-12, was the world's largest wheat- 
producing country, while Russia was a close second. In 
South America Argentina produces over 90 per cent of 
the total wheat crop of that continent. In Asia, British 

India produced 320 of 
the 480 million bushels 
produced by that con- 
tinent. In Africa, al- 
most all the wheat is 
grown in Egypt and 
Algeria. 

106. Production in 
the United States. — 
About one-half of the 
wheat crop of the 
United States is pro- 
duced in the North 
Central States, west 
of the Mississippi 
River, including Min- 
nesota, Iowa, Missouri, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, 
and Kansas. About one-sixth of the crop of this country 
is produced in the North Central States east of the Mis- 
sissippi, including Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and 
Wisconsin. The far West produces about one-sixth of our 
crop, while all of the rest of the states taken together pro- 
duce only about 100 million bushels. For the five years 
1908-12, North Dakota was the leading wheat-producing 
state, with an average annual yield of 90 million bushels. 
Other states producing large amounts were Kansas, 70 




Fig. 41. — Wheat crops of the leading coun- 
tries of the world. 



WHEAT 121 

million bushels, Minnesota, 56 million bushels, Nebraska, 
45 million bushels, and Washington, 44 million bushels. 
About one-half of the wheat produced in the United States 
is spring wheat. 

107. Yield per acre. — The average annual yield per 
acre of wheat in the United States for the ten years 1903-12 
was 14.1 bushels. During the same time, Germany's 
acre yield was 30.1 bushels, England's, 32, that of France, 
21, and Russia's, 9.7 bushels. It is interesting to note that 
the two largest wheat-producing countries of the world 
obtain the lowest acre yield, and it is interesting also to 
speculate as to how long it will be, if the time ever does 
come, before these two countries, with their extensive acre- 
age, will be able to bring their yield per acre up to Ger- 
many's present standard. At the present time the yearly 
world's production is none too great for the needs of its 
bread-eating nations, and yet the population of these 
nations is increasing steadily. Since almost all of the 
available wheat lands of the world, with the exception of a 
few countries, are now under cultivation, it would seem that 
the only means by which this increased population may be 
supplied with bread is in making our present wheat fields 
produce more abundantly. 

108. The world's supply and demand. — The success 
or failure of the wheat crop has a more powerful influence 
upon the world at large than has the success or failure of 
any other field crop. From the time the farmer sows the 
seed until the crop is received by the miller, the bread- 
eating world anxiously watches the crop, receiving with 
thanksgiving news of a bountiful harvest. Unfavorable 
conditions of weather for its growth or harvest in any 
considerable area at once becomes news of international 
interest. The reason for this unusual interest held by the 



122 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

bread-eating nations is not far to seek. Wheat is an inter- 
national crop, the price of which is fixed by the supply 
upon the world's markets. The price of the grain in 
countries having a surplus is dependent upon the com- 
petitive offers from importing nations. The United King- 
dom, being the largest importer of wheat, fixes, to a great 
extent, the price of that crop in all wheat-producing and 
exporting countries. The United Kingdom imports 
annually about 180 million bushels. German}^ demands 
85 millions, Belgium, 70 millions. The Netherlands, 50 
millions, and smaller amounts enter the ports of Italy, 
France, Switzerland, Sweden, Greece, Denmark, and 
other countries. 

In all about 550 million bushels, almost as much as is 
produced in the United States, annually enter into inter- 
national trade. The principal countries supplying this 
demand, with their average annual exportation for the 
five years 1907-11, are Russia, 140 million, Argentina, 95 
million, the United States, 55 million, Canada, 50 million, 
Roumania, 40 million, India and Australia, 35 million 
each, and Belgium, 20 million bushels. It will be noted 
that the United States is a wheat-exporting country, but 
statistics show that her annual exportations are becoming 
less each year. Considering the present rate of increase in 
population, it is interesting to speculate upon the length 
of time that will elapse before the United States becomes 
a wheat-importing nation. It is interesting also to note 
that the exports of Argentina, which produces but one- 
fourth as much as the United States, are almost twice as 
great as the exports of this country. Argentina has great 
possibilities as a wheat-producing country, and undoubt- 
edly will in the future have an important part in feeding the 
world. 



WHEAT 123 

109. Wheat districts of the United States. — When 
one glances over the market report from one of the large 
markets, it will be noticed that prices are quoted for several 
kinds of wheat. Thus quotations will be found on hard 
winter, red-winter, hard-spring, and the like. In order to 
understand the report, it is necessary to know something 
of the nature of the several kinds of wheat, the sections 
of the country in which they are grown, and their uses. 
In studying this interesting subject it will be found that 
wheat grown in one section of the country may be very 
different from that grown in another section. Based upon 
the character of the wheat produced, the United States 
may be divided into five districts somewhat overlapping, 
each producing a wheat differing in several respects from 
that produced in other sections. A brief discussion of the 
several districts and the character of the wheat grown in 
them will not only be interesting, but will be helpful in 
enabling one to understand the market classifications. 

110. Semi-hard wheat district. — This district includes 
all of the states east of the Mississippi River, with the 
exception of northern Wisconsin. It also includes almost 
all of Missouri and Arkansas and eastern Texas. The 
wheat grown in this section of the country has a medium 
hard, rather starchy kernel. The color may be either red, 
amber, or white, red being the most common. Almost all 
of the wheat of this section is winter wheat. In the ex- 
treme northeastern part a small amount of spring wheat is 
grown, but it is used locally, very little, if any, finding its 
way to the large markets. The spring wheat of these 
states is quite similar in character to the winter wheat of 
the remainder of the section. The wheat of the north- 
western part of this section is slightly harder than that 
produced in the Eastern and Southern States, Wheat 



124 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

which finds its way to the markets from the semi-hard 
wheat districts is classed on the market as " red winter " 
wheat. Most of the red-winter wheat that appears on 
the market is produced in the North Central States. In 
the Eastern and Southern States wheat is grown only in 
small amounts and is used locally. When, therefore, the 
market report speaks of '' red-winter " wheat, it refers to 
that grown in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, 
Michigan, southern Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania. The 
most important varieties of semi-hard wheats are Poole, 
Gypsy, Mediterranean, Fultz, and Fulcaster. 

111. Hard-winter district. — This district includes 
chiefly Kansas, Oklahoma, southern Nebraska, southern 
Iowa, and northern Missouri, although Montana, Idaho, 
Utah, and Oregon are producing large quantities. The 
boundaries of this district, especially the eastern boundary, 
are subject to change from year to year, due to seasonal 
variations, which influence the quality of the wheat. 
Thus southern Iowa wheat may sometimes be classed as 
" hard-winter," and at other times " red-winter." The 
wheat produced in this section has hard, narrow, medium- 
sized grains. It has excellent bread-making qualities, 
being considered superior for this purpose to the semi-hard 
wheats. The chief difference in the appearance of the 
wheats of these two sections is in the hardness and shape 
of the grain. The kernel of the hard-winter is much 
harder, containing very little white starch, and it is some- 
what longer and narrower than the grains of the semi- 
hard or red-winter wheats. Wheat grown in this section 
is classed as " hard-winter " wheat on the market. The 
most important varieties of hard-winter wheat are Turkey 
and Karkov, the former of which was introduced from 
Russia some thirty years ago. 



WHEAT 125 

112. Hard-spring wheat district. — This section in- 
cludes Minnesota, North and South Dakota, northern 
Wisconsin, Iowa, and Nebraska, and parts of Montana and 
Colorado and Canada. The wheat produced in this 
section is sown in the spring and has rather small, short, 
hard grains. It is the most highly prized for bread-making 
of any wheat grown in the United States. This section 
produces over 30 per cent of the total crop of the United 
States and is the center of the milling district. The wheat 
of this section differs from that of the hard winter district 
in that it is spring sown, the kernels are harder, somewhat 
shorter, and it makes a slightly better quality of bread 
flour. There are two important varieties of hard spring 
wheats, namely, — the fife and blue-stem, while a third, 
the bearded fife, or so-called " velvet chaff," is also com- 
monly grown. 

113. Soft wheat district. — This district in a general 
way includes the states west of the hard winter and hard 
spring districts. The wheat of this section is both fall 
and spring sown, and the kernels may be either red or 
white in color. The largest part of the crop of this section 
is spring sown, and produces white kernels. California, 
Washington, and Oregon produce most of the wheat grown 
in this section. Scattered portions of the Rocky Moun- 
tain States produce small amounts by means of irrigation. 
The wheat of this section is characterized by a soft, plump, 
starchy red or white kernel. The district is sometimes 
called the white wheat district, because most of the wheat 
has white, starchy kernels. The wheats of this section are 
not well adapted to the making of bread flour, and are used 
largely for export to the Orient, and in the making of 
pastry flour. Much of the wheat produced in this section 
is the Triticum sativum compaction, or club wheat, a most 



126 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

important variety of which is Little Club, known also as 
California Club, Washington Club, Walla Walla Club, 
Silver Club, and the like. Other varieties commonly 
grown are Oregon Red-chaff, Dale's Glory, and Crook- 
neck Club. The leading common wheats in the soft 
wheat district of the West are White Australian, a beard- 
less variety largely grown in California, Sonora, a beard- 
less brown-chaff variety grown in California and Oregon, 
and Palouse Bluestem, a semi-harcl spring variety, closely 
related to fife wheat, and grown in Washington and 
Oregon. Some few varieties, the most common of which 
are Dawson's Golden Chaff and Gold Coin, grown in Ohio, 
New York, and adjacent states, grade on the market as 
soft wheats. 

114. Durum wheat district. — Durum wheat is grown 
principally in the east and central parts of the Dakotas, 
in Colorado, Montana, Kansas, Nebraska, and in smaller 
areas in adjacent states. This section, therefore, overlaps 
both that of the hard winter and the hard spring districts. 
Durum wheat is grown largely in sections of these states 
where conditions are not favorable for the growing of 
hard winter or hard spring wheat. It will grow in more 
arid sections and with less rainfall than will produce a 
profitable crop of either of the other sorts. Usually when 
either hard winter or hard spring varieties can be grown 
with profit, they are preferred to durum. The important 
varieties of durum wheat are Kubanka and Arnantka. 
For some years after its introduction durum wheat sold at a 
discount ranging from 25 to 15 cents per bushel below com- 
mon hard wheat. This prejudice has gradually decreased, 
however, and during the past year durum wheat has sold 
at a premium over equal grades of hard spring common 
wheat. 



WHEAT 127 



ADAPTATION 

115. Climatic adaptation. — The wheat plant has a wide 
cHmatic adaptation which in no little measure is responsi- 
ble for its world-wide importance. If it were a plant 
adapted only to certain restricted climates, it never could 
have gained the place of preeminence which it now holds 
among the nations of the world. In a general way, how- 
ever, the world's wheat crop is grown in regions of cold 
winters. Exceptions to this are to be found in India and 
Egypt and in California. Wheat, for its best develop- 
ment, requires that the plants make their early growth 
during the cool part of the growing season. This is true 
for both fall and spring varieties. If planted in the season 
of the year when early growth is made during hot weather, 
little stooling results and low yields are secured. While 
wheat has a wide climatic range, climate has a marked 
influence upon the quality of it. The division of the 
United States into wheat districts, which has just been 
discussed, has been due largely to the influence of climate 
in the various sections of the country upon the physical 
character of the grain. Wheat of the l^est quality is pro- 
duced in sections having a cool and rather wet growing 
season during the early life of the plant, followed by rather 
hot, dry, sunshiny weather during the ripening period. 
When these conditions prevail, the largest yields are se- 
cured and the grain is of the best quality. Under these 
conditions of growth the kernels are rather hard and 
flinty and contain a relatively high percentage of protein 
and low percentage of starch. In sections where rainfall 
is plentiful and damp weather prevails during the ripening 
period, the kernels are soft and starchy, containing a 
relatively high percentage of starch and low percentage of 



128 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

protein. This difference in the physical character of the 
kernel is due, in part, to the fact that if favorable growing 
weather prevails during the ripening period, the plant 
continues its growth until the starch cells of the kernels 
are completely filled, which gives to the kernel a light 
color and a soft, starchy endosperm. If, however, hot, 
dry weather prevails during the ripening period, the plant 
ripens prematurely, and before all of the starch cells of the 
kernel have been filled by the transfer of starch from the 
leaves and stem to the kernel. The starch cells, therefore, 
not being completely filled, give to the kernels a hard and 
flinty texture and a rather dark color. In the Pacific 
Coast States, where soft wheats are produced, rather 
little rain falls during the growing season, but it falls in 
abundance during the winter, and since the soils of this 
section have great water-holding capacity, the plant is well 
supplied with moisture during its full period of growth. 
Some of the difference in the physical characters between 
hard and soft wheats may perhaps be due in part to a 
difference in the size of the starch cells, as revealed by 
microscopic examination, those of the soft wheats being 
the larger. 

116. Adaptation to soil. — In addition to its adaptation 
to climate, wheat will grow well under greatly varying 
soil conditions. The soil, unlike climate, has no notice- 
able effect upon the quality of the grain, but it is of con- 
siderable importance when the yield is considered. Like 
almost all crops, wheat yields the best on fertile soils, 
although good yields may be secured on rather poor types 
of soils if proper fertilization and cultural methods are 
employed in growing it. As a general thing, wheat is 
better adapted to the so-called '' grass lands " or clay 
loam soils, than to the more fertile '' corn soils " that are 



WHEAT 129 

abundantly supplied with organic matter. Winter killing 
is less likely to occur on clay than on loamy soils, and 
comparatively better yields of wheat are secured on this 
type than are obtained from corn soils. 

METHODS OF CULTURE 

117. Place in the rotation. — In the corn belt states 
where both corn and oats are grown in the rotation, the 
usual sequence is corn, oats, wheat, hay. When wheat, 
is the only grain crop in rotation, the wheat follows corn, 
and it is in turn followed by hay. While a corn, wheat, 
and oat rotation is usually a three-year rotation, it may, 
by cutting hay from the field for two years, be extended 
to four years. In parts of the Great Plains area, wheat is 
grown in continuous culture, largely because farming 
operations are so extensive that a rotation cannot well be 
practiced. As the population increases, the size of farms 
will decrease and after a few years, perhaps, a well-defined 
rotation will have become the usual practice there. 

118. Preparing the seed bed. — The method of pre- 
paring the seed bed for wheat, of course, will be influenced 
by the rotation practiced and whether it is seeded in the 
fall or spring. In the winter wheat sections, when a 
four-year rotation is followed, the oat stubble land must 
be prepared for wheat. The most common method, 
perhaps, is that of plowing the land a few weeks before 
the time of seeding. In recent years the disking of the 
land instead of plowing has become a common practice. 
Whether plowing or disking is the method employed, an 
important factor, probably the most important factor in 
many cases, is the handling of the soil in such a way as to 
retain as much of the season's rainfall stored in the soil as 
possible. Moisture is often a factor which determines 



130 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



whether or not the plants will make a successful, growth 
before winter. The handling of the soil in such a way 
as to retain moisture and to permit its rise from the sub- 
soil by capillarity is of even more importance in preparing 




Fig. 42. — Cross section of a poorly and of a well prepared seed bed. 

the land for fall wheat than for corn. Corn is planted in 
the spring when showers are frequent, and usually rain falls 
in sufficient quantity within a few days of the planting to 
supply the needed water for early germination, while at 
wheat-planting time rain falls rather infrequently in many 
sections, and unless the soil is prepared so as to permit the 



WHEAT 131 

water to come up from the subsoil to supply water neces- 
sary for germination, the latter may be delayed for several 
weeks. In preparing the soil for wheat, the same general 
principles will be involved as were discussed in the cor- 
responding part of the chapter on corn. Oat stubble 
should be plowed or disked as soon as the oats can be 
removed from the field, and the land further prepared by 
frequent harrowing so as to prevent rapid loss of moisture 
until the seed is planted. Sometimes it is advisable and 
entirely practical to disk the land before plowing it. 
This renders the further preparation less difficult and often 
saves much time as compared with plowing only. In the 
three-year rotation, wheat most often follows corn. 
Usually corn land cannot be given much preparation before 
seeding the wheat, since the corn remains on the field 
until, or even after, the wheat is sowti. However, much 
can be done to prepare the seed bed for wheat, both in 
pulverizing the soil and keeping it free from weeds by 
careful cultivation of the corn crop. Sometimes a light 
drag may well be run ahead of the drill to loosen up the 
soil. This practice is often followed when the wheat is 
drilled in the standing corn. If an early variety of corn is 
grown, it may usually be put into the shock before wheat 
seeding, in which case a disk or cultivator may be em- 
ployed to prepare the ground for sowing. For spring 
wheat the land may be either plowed in the fall or early in 
the spring. The preparation of the seed bed from fall or 
spring plowed land does not differ from the practices 
already described. 

119. Preparation of wheat for seeding. — Wheat to be 
used for seeding should be run through the fanning mill to 
remove the weed seeds, dirt, chaff, and damaged kernels. 
After the wheat has been thoroughly cleaned by the use of 



132 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

the fanning mill, it is usually profitable to treat it for the 
prevention of stinking smut, a fungous disease that does 
considerable damage and sometimes destroys as much as 
10 per cent of the crop. This fungus will be described 
elsewhere in the chapter, and only the method of treating 
the seed for its control will be discussed here. The fungus 
spores of the stinking smut of wheat and of the loose smut 
of oats may be killed by treating the seed grain in the 
following way : Take a pound of formalin (formaldehyde, 
40 per cent), dissolve it in 50 gallons of water, spread the 
grain out on the clean floor, and wet it thoroughly with the 
solution, using about three quarts to a gallon for each 
bushel of the grain. The work can be done easily and 
thoroughly if one person shovels the wheat over while 
another applies the solution with the sprinkling can, then 
stack the grain up in a pile or in a long rick, and cover over 
with carpets and blankets to retain the fumes from the 
formalin, and allow to remain for two or three hours, or 
even over night. Then spread the grain out to dry before 
seeding. It should not be returned to the same bags 
unless they have been treated with the solution, as they 
may contain spores that will again infect the grain. The 
drill box also should be sprayed with the solution. 

120. Time and rate of seeding. — The time of seeding 
wheat, of course, varies with the locality. In the winter- 
wheat districts the seeding is done early enough in the fall 
to permit the plants to become well established before 
winter. In the red-winter wheat section almost all of the 
wheat is seeded during September ; in the northern portion 
the seeding is done during the early part of the month, 
while in the southern portion it is usually delayed until the 
last of September or even until October. In the South- 
ern States it may be seeded even later than that. If 



WHEAT 133 

seeded too early, too much growth is made before cold 
weather, and many of the plants are likely to be winter- 
killed ; but if delayed too long, sufficient growth cannot be 
made to enable the plants to withstand the winter. The 
practice of the best farmers of any section may usually be 
used as a guide for the proper time of seeding. Spring 
wheat usually does better if the seeding is done early, 
since the plants make their best growth during the cool 
weather of spring. Early seeding also avoids to a con- 
siderable extent the attacks of insects and permits the 
crop to ripen and be harvested before the more severe 
storms of late summer. 

121. Method and depth of seeding. — Almost all of the 
wheat in the United States is now seeded with a grain 
drill, in some few places, however, broadcasting being 
still practiced. Seeding with the grain drill is to be rec- 
ommended in almost all cases. The depth of seeding 
depends to some extent upon the condition of the seed 
bed. In a well-prepared bed the seed should not be put 
down deeply into the ground, usually one to two inches 
being a sufficient depth. Some farmers plant the seed 
deeply, in order, as they believe, to insure a deep root 
system and prevent winter killing. Deep seeding, of 
course, does not insure a deep root system, as has pre- 
viously been explained. It is necessary in a poorly pre- 
pared seed bed to put the seed down somewhat deeper in 
order to place it where it can get sufficient moisture to 
germinate and also in order that there may be enough 
loose soil to cover it. 

122. Cultivation of wheat. — Wheat is not usually 
cultivated after seeding, but some growers follow the 
practice of harrowing fall-sown wheat in the spring. This 
breaks up the surface crust and prevents the evaporation of 



134 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

moisture. Experiment station tests of this practice seem 
to indicate that harrowing wheat is profitable if the season 
is a dry one, this practice sometimes increasing the yield 
as much as 6 or 7 bushels per acre. In these experiments, 
harrowing was not found to decrease the yield during any 
season. Rolling the wheat in the spring has also given 
good results, in some cases better than harrowing. 

HARVESTING AND STORING 

123. Harvesting. — In some part of the world, wheat is 
being harvested during each month in the year. In the 






Ji^f' . 



Fig. 43. — Harvesting wheat with a grain binder. 

southern part of the United States wheat harvest begins in 
May, and as the season advances progresses northward, 
the more northerly fields being cut in August. Almost all 
of the wheat crop in this country is harvested as soon as 
it is ripe. However, in certain sections of the wheat 
growing districts along the Pacific Coast it is allowed to 



WHEAT 135 

stand in the field for several weeks before harvesting. 
In the corn belt states the harvesting must be done as 
soon as the crop is ripe, or much will be lost from shatter- 
ing. Sometimes it is advisable even to cut it before it is 
fully matured in order to prevent loss from shattering. 
Wheat may be cut without loss in yield or injury to the 
quality after the straw has turned yellow and the grain 
is in the hard dough stage. When cut at this time, the 
bundles should be promptly set up in shocks, or else the 
hot sun will stop the transfer of starch from the leaves 




Fig. 44. — A combination harvester and thrasher at work in tlie tar West. 

and stem to the grain. Prompt shocking is desirable also 
to prevent bleaching and injury from rain and dew and 
usually it should be done if possible the same day the wheat 
is cut. Wheat shocks usually are made somewhat larger 
than those of oats, since the grain and straw dry out more 
rapidly. Usually twelve bundles are set together to form 
a shock. Thrashing may be done directly from the field 
or the bundles may be stacked or stored in the barn for 
later thrashing. On the large wheat farms of the Western 
States a combination harvester and thrasher is employed. 
This outfit represents a considerable investment of capital 
and also requires considerable motive power, usually 



136 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



28 mules or a tractor engine being required. It can be 
used with profit only when extensive acreages are grown 
in one field. 

124. Storing of wheat. — Thrashed grain may be stored 
safely in any tight bin or granary. Owing to the dry 
weather of the Pacific Coast States, thrashed grain is 
frequentl}^ allowed to remain in the field until marketed, 
or even after marketing it may be stored by piling the 



fn 


T m* 




ji^^fct^ y^'^tj^Bfcfc 


H^K 4*' 




btii 


^jUMKiB^^H 


^--'^"fMjr 


1 


,. ;1 


^^Wi^P 


\ ■ • : ' -jt j''' 





Fig. 45. — Thrashing wheat in the Northwest. 

bags in great heaps out in the open. The moisture con- 
tent of thrashed grains varies with the humidity of the 
atmosphere. When wheat is shipped from a dry to humid 
climate, frequently the increase in weight is enough to 
pay for the transportation. 



IMPROVEMENT OF WHEAT 



125. opportunities for improvement. — With the acre 
yield of wheat less than 15 bushels in great agricultural 
countries like the United States and Canada, it would 
seem that there is an abundance of opportunity for in- 



WHEAT 137 

creasing our production. Much that has been said and 
done about this important problem has been along the 
line of soil improvement, and comparatively little has been 
done in the way of improving the plant itself. The im- 
portance of the problem is so far-reaching that it would 
seem advisable to employ both methods in order to bring 
about a larger production. Much is possible along the 
line of plant improvement, and every wheat grower should 
be content only after he is satisfied that further improve- 
ment is impossible. 

126. The variety test. — No one best method for the 
improvement of the small grain crops has yet been ad- 
vanced. There still remain great opportunities for im- 
provement in methods and the extending of their prac- 
tices. From our present knowledge of crop improvement, 
the first step in this direction is the variety test. The 
variety test is so easily conducted that no wheat grower 
should long be in doubt as to whether or not he can increase 
his production by securing seed of a different variety from 
that which he is now growing. Frequently an increase of 
several bushels per acre may be secured by the growing of 
a better adapted variety. It is the purpose of the variety 
test to determine which variety or strain is best adapted 
to a given soil for a series of years. The variety test may 
be conducted with few or with several varieties. Any 
farmer can conduct a test with a few of the most promi- 
nent varieties without great inconvenience. The variety 
test consists in growing several varieties side by side under 
uniform conditions of soil and culture. The farmer may 
find it convenient to seed one or two rounds of each variety 
with the drill, comparing the yield and the quality of the 
crop at harvest time. More accurate results are secured 
if one variety is used as a check, as was explained in the 



138 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 




WHEAT 



139 



paragraph on the improvement of corn. More careful 
experimenters will desire to measure off accurately a 
fraction of an acre for each variety. The test is most 
valuable when it has been carried on for several years on 
the same farm, since 
the influence of sea- 
sonal conditions may 
be more accurately de- 
termined. 

127. The head-row 
test. — When the best 
variety has been se- 
lected, still further 
opportunity for im- 
provement is to be 
found in the selection 
of the highest yield- 
ing plants in this va- 
riety. Individual 
plants like ears of 
corn vary markedly in 
their ability to yield. 
If, therefore, the high- 
yielding plants can be 
found and used for per- 
petuation, great oppor- 
tunities for increasing 
the yield are possible. 
The method of making this selection is known as the head- 
row test. This test consists in going into the field at 
harvest time and selecting under normal conditions of 
growth a number of the most promising individuals. 
From 25 to 1000 heads, representing as many plants, may 




Fig. 47. — • Head-row test at the Ohio Sta- 
tion showing variation in erectness of heads. 



140 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



be selected. Their ability to yield is then determined by 
planting a short row, usually about four feet long, from 
each head the next season. A check system should be 

used to secure a reli- 
able test, and a com- 
posite sample from the 
general seed may be 
used for planting the 
check rows, usually 
every tenth row being 
planted as a check. 
At harvest time 
each row is carefully 
studied, special notice 
being given to winter 
killing, stiffness of 
straw, time of ripening, 
and other qualities. 
If each row is har- 
vested and thrashed 
separately, compara- 
tive yields may be 
secured. The grain 
from the most prom- 
ising rows is used to 
plant a larger crop the 
next season, which 
will give another op- 
portunity for study 
and selection of the 
most promising strains. In a few years enough need 
will be secured to seed a small field, and later the entire 
crop, if the selection proves to be more desirable than the 




Fig. 48. — Head-row test showing vari- 
eties in yield of straw and grain (Ohio Ex- 
periment Station). 



WHEAT 



141 



seed from the general crop. This method of improve- 
ment has great possibiUties. At some of the experiment 
stations strains have been developed from single heads 
that not only outyielded the parent variety, but also were 
superior to it in the stiffness of the straw and other quali- 
ties. Wheat improvement by the head-row method is 
less difficult than that of corn by the ear-row method, 
since wheat is usually self-fertilized and no precautions 
are necessary to prevent intercrossing as must be taken in 
corn improvement. 




Fig. 49. — Harvesting wheat plots at Cornell University. 



128. Wheat judging. — Samples of thrashed grain 
may be judged from the standpoint of its use as seed or 
for flour or bread-making qualities. Usually in competi- 
tive shows wheat is judged from the milling standpoint. 
Before one can judge wheat quickly and accurately from 
any standpoint, it is necessary to become familiar with 
the points that are of importance in determining the value 
of the sample. This familiarity can be gained from careful 
study or long experience. The student, necessarily, on 



142 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

account of limited time, must gain his knowledge by care- 
ful study. This study should be such as to enable him 
to quickly see in a sample both the good and bad points, 
and with both in view to arrive at an accurate decision. 
By carefully analyzing several samples, especially pre- 
pared for the purpose, experience will be gained that will 
enable the student to analyze more easily any sample, 
without making the actual separations. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES 

129. Fungous Diseases. — Wheat is attacked by three 
important and several minor fungous diseases. The most im- 
portant are the smuts. There are two kinds, namely, the loose 
and the stinking smuts. The loose smut, while it is widely 
spread, is not as destructive as the stinking smut. In the field, 
the loose smut is easily recognized, since it has converted the 
heads into black, powdery masses before they appear above 
the leaf sheath. The spores are soon blown away by the wind 
and only the naked stem remains at harvest time. It may be 
controlled by a hot water treatment of the seed, but this treat- 
ment is rather unsatisfactory and is not generally practiced. 

The stinking smut is not so readily recognized in the field, but 
at thrashing time the presence of the dusty, ill-smelling spores 
indicates its presence. If a grain of wheat affected by the stink- 
ing smut be cut open, it will be found to contain no endosperm, 
but in its place the black, stinking spores. Methods for its 
treatment have been given elsewhere. (See page 132.) 

The rusts of wheat occasionally damage the crop to a con- 
siderable extent. They are recognized by the rusty brown and 
black spores that attack the stem and leaves of the plant during 
any stage of its growth. The damage done by rusts depends to a 
considerable extent upon weather conditions. Some seasons the 
damage may be little, while in favorable years for its growth the 
crop may be almost entirely ruined. There is no effective remedy 
for the control of the rusts. 

The scab attacks the glumes of the plant, and is widely dis- 
tributed. It seldom causes serious loss, although occasionally 
much shriveled wheat results from its ravages. 



WHEAT 143 

130. The Insects. — The Hessian fly is probably the most 
destructive of the insects that attack the wheat plant. It is 
found in the main wheat-growing regions of eastern United 
States, Canada, and many other principal wheat-growing coun- 
tries of the world. The adult has the appearance of a mosquito, 
and the female lays her eggs in irregular rows on the lower leaves 
of the wheat plants soon after they are up. In a few days the 
eggs hatch and the small, reddish larvae, which later turn white, 
crawl down the stem between the stem and the leaf sheath, and 
when located there, cause a small enlargement on the plant at 
the point of attack. In a few weeks they reach the pupa stage, 
in which form they resemble a flax seed, and in this form they 
pass the winter. In the spring the adult appears and lays eggs 
for another brood. The first indication usually of the presence 
of the insects is when the young plants turn yellow, and in later 
growth, when the straw falls. The most effective method of 
control is the delaying of the seeding of the wheat for a week or 
ten days after the normal date of seeding, and usually the females 
will have come and gone before the wheat is up. A trap crop 
may be seeded early in the season and then plowed under deeply 
after the eggs have been laid. It is estimated that the annual 
loss of wheat in the United States from the attacks of this insect 
is over 4 million bushels. 

131. The Chinch Bug. — During the winter the chinch bugs 
hibernate in the grass or under rubbish, and in the spring the 
females fly to the wheat fields, where each lays from 100 to 200 
eggs on the base of the wheat plants. In about three weeks the 
eggs hatch and the young insects commence to sap the juices 
from the plants. The bugs pass through six stages before they 
become full grown. They live on the wheat for some time, or 
until harvest, when they migrate to the oats or corn. Although 
the adults have wings, they travel on foot from plant to plant 
and from field to field. The eggs for the second brood are laid 
on the corn plants, and when the insects mature, they fly to the 
grass lands for the winter. The control of this pest is accom- 
plished in most cases by burning the grass and rubbish early in 
the spring, thus destroying the adults before the eggs are laid. 
Since they travel on foot, it is sometimes possible to keep them 
from passing from one field to another by spreading a narrow 
strip of tar between the infected field and the one to be protected. 



144 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

Many of the insects may be killed by placing post holes every 
few rods and connecting them with strips of tar. The insects 
will follow the tar and finally fall into the holes, where they may 
be destroyed. Other insects are in certain seasons very destruc- 
tive to the crop, but the ones discussed are the most impor- 
tant. 



CHAPTER VI 

OATS 

The cultivation of oats is of more recent date than that 
of wheat and barley. They were not grown by the ancient 
Greeks and Egyptians, but probably were cultivated at 
an early date by the less civilized people that inhabited 
east central Europe, which is thought to be the original 
home of this crop. Oats were less important than wheat 
and barley in the early development of southern Europe, 
but came into importance with the civilization and 
development of the central and northern portions of this 
country, and have until the present time been one of the 
important cereals in these sections. Cultivated oats 
have probably been derived from a wild species, Avena 
fatua, which is found growing wild in many parts of the 
country. The oat plant is closely related to the tall oat 
grass which is cultivated to some extent in Europe and in 
the United States for forage. It is also closely related to 
the wild oat, Avena sterilis, which in many parts of the 
country is found growing wild. 

132. Botanical characters. — The oat, Avena saliva, 
like the other cereals, is an annual grass with jointed stems 
and a fibrous root system. The roots in their manner of 
growth are similar to those of wheat, although as a rule 
they do not penetrate the ground so deeply. The stems 
are somewhat coarser and larger in diameter than those of 
L 145 



146 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



wheat, and are greatly influenced in number and in the 
height to which they grow by environment. Usually one 
seed produces from three to seven stems and their height 
varies from 2 to 5 or more feet, the average probably being 
about 3i feet. The height of the stems depends to a 
considerable extent upon the fertility of the soil, and to 
some extent upon the variety and the rate of planting. 




Nake(/ (7ra/>? 



Outer 0/ume -^ 




^/atr^/7'ogf 0/ume 
Outer 0/ume 



Fig. 50. — Spikelet of oats. Number 1 shows parts in position, 
Number 2, spikelet dissected. 

133. The leaves. — The leaves are broader and more 
numerous than those of wheat, and the blade varies in 
length from 6 to 15 inches. On account of their large and 
more numerous leaves, oats are not as desirable a nurse 
crop for clovers or grasses as is wheat or barley. The 
proportion of straw to grain is more variable than that 
of wheat, varying in this respect from 1.3 to 4 or more 
pounds of straw for each pound of grain. 



OATS 147 

134. The flower. — The inflorescence is in the form of a 
panicle, which consists of a central stem or rachis, the 
nodes of which are comparatively few and far apart, and 
from each node several small branches are given off. 
The branches coming from a single node are called collec- 
tively a whorl, the number of w^horls, therefore, correspond- 
ing to the number of nodes, which varies from 3 to 6. 
The number of branches per whorl varies from 2 to 5 or 
more. The branches are of various lengths, those of the 
lower whorls being longer usually than those of the upper 
whorls. The branches from the same whorl vary in length, 
some of them rebranching. The spikelets are carried at 
the end of rather long pedicels. The number of spikelets 
per panicle may vary from 30 to 70 or more. Each spike- 
let is made up of two large, chaffy outer glumes which 
inclose two or more flowers, usually only two of which 
produce kernels. The flowers are made up of three 
stamens and a branched, feathery stigma and ovule. The 
flowers open only for a few hours, and almost always 
fertilization has been effected before they open. Thus 
oats are usually self-pollinated and there is little danger of 
mixing when two varieties are grown side by side. 

The developed kernel remains tightly inclosed w^ithin 
the flowering glume and palea. The two kernels of a 
spikelet are of unequal size, the lower one being the larger. 
If three flowers develop, as is quite commonly the case, 
the third kernel is the smallest of the three, and usually is 
so small as to be of little value. In some varieties the 
flowering glume bears a small awn, or beard, which, unlike 
that of wheat or barley, does not come from the tip of the 
glume, but arises from a point about two-thirds of the 
distance from the base. The oat grain, as the term is 
commonly used, refers to the flowering glume and palea, 



148 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



or the hull together with the inclosed kernel. The pro- 
portion of hull to kernel varies with the variety and with 




Fig. 51. — Side panicle of oats. 

the environment of growth. The percentage of hull varies 
from 20 to 40 or more per cent, the average being about 



OATS 



149 



30 per cent. When grown under unfavorable conditions, 
the percentage of hull is relatively high, while favor- 
able conditions for 
growth produce 
short, plump grains, 
with a relatively low 
percentage of hull. 
The size, shape, and 
color of the grain 
vary with the con- 
ditions of growth, 
and with the vari- 
ety. The most com- 
mon colors are white 
and yellow, although 
quite a few varieties 
are black, gray, or 
red in color. The 
legal weight per 
bushel in most states 
is 32 pounds. How- 
ever, the weight per 
measured bushel 
varies with the va- 
riety, the season, and 
the time of cutting, 
and due to these 
factors, will some- 
times show a range 
of from 20 to 50 

pounds per bushel. ^'^' ^^- " Branched panicle of oats. 

" Clipped oats " is a market term employed to define oats 
that have had a part of the hull clipped off by machinery 




150 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

to reduce the percentage of hull and increase the weight 
per bushel. The standard weight per bushel for clipped 
oats in most markets is 45 pounds. 

135. Types of oats. — Oats may be divided according 
to the appearance of the panicle into two classes, spreading 
or open, and side or closed. In the spreading sort the 
branches of the panicle stand out at different angles from 
the rachis, giving the panicle an open appearance, while 
in the side oats the branches grow more or less upright, 
giving a closed appearance, and are arranged on one side 
of the rachis. The spreading type is the more commonly 
grown. Oats may also be classified into spring and winter 
varieties. The winter varieties, like winter wheat, are 
seeded in the fall and harvested the next summer. Winter 
varieties are grown only in sections of the country having 
mild, open winters, like those prevailing in the Southern 
States and along the Pacific Coast. Oats are sometimes 
divided into early, medium, and late varieties, based upon 
the time of ripening. Usually the early varieties have 
short straw and small grains, while the later varieties 
grow taller and as a rule have larger and plumper grains. 
Sixty-day and Burt are well-known early varieties, while 
the Swedish Select, Siberian, Big Four, and American 
Banner are the more common medium and late varieties. 
On the market, oats are classified according to the color 
of the grain, as white, black, and mixed oats. 

USES OF OATS 

136. The grain as food. — By far the greater part of 
our oat crop is used for feeding live stock. Oats are 
relatively high in protein and are therefore useful for 
feeding to young animals, as they furnish a large amount 
of muscle-building material. They have long been held 



OATS 151 

in high esteem for feeding horses, particularly those at 
heavy work, many horsemen preferring them to any 
other grain feed. For horses they are not usually ground, 
and they may either be fed alone or in combination with 
other grains. They are highly prized for feeding sheep, 
especially ewes and growing lambs. They may also be 
fed to hogs and cattle, and for this purpose they are 
usually ground, often in combination with other grains. 
Not a little of our oat crop is used for human food, almost 
all of that which is used in this country being in the form 
of " rolled oats." Rolled oats are prepared for use by 
removing the hull and then flaking the kernels by running 
them between heavy rollers to press them into thin flakes. 
In this form they are boxed and placed on the market. 
To prepare them for serving, they must be cooked in 
water for some time in order to break down the cellulose 
and render the starch grains thoroughly cooked. Only 
the best grades of oats are used for making rolled oats, 
and grain for this purpose commands the highest price 
on the market. Oats have long been used in Europe for 
food, especially in Scotland, where they hold an important 
place in the dietary of the people, being used there largely 
in the form of oat meal or ground oats. 

137. Use as forage. — Oat straw is highly prized for 
feeding live stock, since it is more readily eaten and con- 
tains greater feeding value than the straw from other 
cereals. It is frequently used as roughage for keeping 
stock over the winter, but it should not be used extensively 
for feeding growing stock, milch cows, or horses at work. 
Oat straw is also valuable for bedding, since it is rather 
less harsh than other straws, contains no beards, and 
absorbs liquids quite readily. 

Sometimes oats are cut for hay or used for pasture or 



152 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

for soiling purposes. When used for hay, they should be 
cut when the grains are in the dough stage. Oat hay is 
very palatable and possesses high feeding value. The 
quality and feeding value is greatly improved, however, 
if field peas are seeded with the oats. The rate of seeding 
and time of cutting this combination crop is discussed 
in the paragraph on field peas. Oats may be used to 
supply quick temporary pasture for all kinds of stock, 
and when grown for that purpose or for hay, a large 
growing, broad leafed variety should be selected. 

PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 

138. The world's production. — The world's produc- 
tion of oats in bushels is greater than that of any other 
cereal, but on account of the lighter weight per bushel 
is exceeded in total number of pounds by corn and wheat. 
The world's annual production for the five years 1907- 
1911 is approximately 4000 million bushels, or slightly 
greater than the amount of corn and wheat grown. Of 
this amount the United States produced the largest amount, 
having an average annual production of 945 million 
bushels. During the same period European Russia 
produced annually 885 million bushels, Germany, 585 
million bushels, Canada, 315 milhon bushels, France, 
303 million bushels, and Austria-Hungary, 254 million 
bushels. Other countries in which the crop is important, 
but which, on account of their smaller acreage, do not 
have a large total production, are the United Kingdom, 
Belgium, Denmark, and Sweden. 

139. Production in the United States. — In the United 
States oats rank second to corn in the number of bushels 
produced, but are exceeded in value by corn, cotton, hay, 
and wheat. A large proportion of the oat crop of the 



OATS 153 

United States is produced in the Central, North Central, 
and adjacent states. Iowa is the largest producer, 
with Illinois a close second, each state devoting more than 
10 per cent of her total land area to this crop, and together 
producing more than one-fourth of the total crop for this 
country. Other states devoting large areas and having 
a large production are Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska, 
Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, the Dakotas, Kansas, Penn- 
sylvania, Texas, and Missouri. The area devoted to 
oats in the Southern States of the United States comprises 
less than 12 per cent of the total acreage of that section, 
and furnishes less than 9 per cent of the total production 
of the United States. 

140. Yield per acre. — The highest yield per acre is 
obtained in Germany, where for the ten years 1902-1911 
the average annual yield per acre is 51.4 bushels. The 
United Kingdom ranks next with 44.7 bushels per acre for 
the same period. France secures 30 bushels, Austria- 
Hungary, 31, and the United States, 29.4 bushels per acre. 
While the average yield per acre is relatively low for the 
United States, some few states, those that grow but small 
acreages, usually by the aid of irrigation, produce yields 
rivaling those of Germany. The state of Washington 
for the ten years 1902-1911 has an average annual yield 
of 47.6 bushels per acre. This record was made, however, 
on a comparatively small acreage artificially supplied 
with water, and is not to be compared with the yield 
secured by other states on larger areas without irrigation. 
The great oat-producing states, however, secure only 
from 25 to 35 bushels per acre, while in the Southern 
States the average yield per acre is less than 22 bushels. 

141. Exports and imports. — For the five years 1907- 
1911 the United States exported annually 2,090,000 



154 FIELD CHOP PRODUCTION 

bushels of oats and imported annually 1,665,000 bushels. 
Much of the export goes to European markets, where 
a crop shortage usually exists. The import is largely 
from Canada, and smaller amounts come from northern 
Europe for seed purposes. Sometimes in years of crop 
shortage here, oats are imported from countries other than 
Canada, usually from Argentina. 

ADAPTATION 

142. Climate. — Oats are best adapted to a cool, 
moist climate, and reach their best development in Great 
Britain, Norway, Germany, Canada, and the northern 
part of the United States. They do not grow well in hot 
climates unless favored with an abundance of rainfall, 
and are therefore not as productive in the southern part 
of the United States as they are farther north. Not 
only does the climate affect the yield, but it also has a 
considerable influence upon the physical character of the 
grain. Varieties grown in warm climates are usually less 
plump and have a lighter weight per bushel than those 
grown in cooler climates. When grown in warm climates, 
frequently long awns are produced and the grains are 
often a gray or dun color, with a high percentage of hull. 
Northern grown varieties more often have short, plump 
grains, with a short awn, low percentage of hull, and high 
weight per bushel. Sometimes growers secure their 
seed every few years from states farther north, with a 
view to improving the crop and increasing the yield above 
that secured from native seed. Experiments at the 
Ohio and Iowa stations indicate that little improvement 
may be expected from this practice. At the Ohio Station 
seed secured from northern states did not produce better 
than home grown seed of the same variety. 



OA TS 155 

143. Soils. — Oats have a wide adaptation to soils, 
and fair yields may be secured on almost all types of soils 
in cool, moist climates. They have a wider adaptation to 
soils than almost any of the other cereals. Of course 
much better yields are secured from fertile than from poor 
soils, but compared with other cereals good yields may be 
secured on relatively poor lands. Oats draw rather more 
heavily upon the moisture of a soil than any of the other 
cereals, and soils that retain moisture well are best adapted 
to their culture. On very fertile soils they are likely to 
produce a rank growth of stem, and quite frequently, 
under such conditions, lodge badly and produce corre- 
spondingly more straw than grain. This tendency to 
lodge is a serious objection to their use as a nurse crop 
for clovers or grasses, since the latter may be smoth- 
ered out by them. On fertile soils the grower should 
select a short strawed, early variety which may be har- 
vested before summer storms lay it low. 

METHODS OF CULTURE 

144. Place in the rotation. — In the corn belt states 
oats usually follow corn in the rotation. A common 
four-year rotation is corn, oats, wheat, and hay. When 
wheat is omitted, corn, oats, and hay form the usual 
sequence. The rotation may be extended to cover four 
years by allowing the meadow to stand for two years. 
In the South, where winter oats are principally grown and 
cotton enters into the rotation, a common sequence is 
cotton, corn, and oats. Frequently a catch crop of cowpeas 
or bur clover is used between the corn and oats, and also 
between oats and cotton. When the oat is the only small 
grain grown in the rotation, it is frequently used, espe- 
cially in the corn belt states, as a nurse crop for clovers 



156 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

and grasses. Oats are not so good for this purpose as 
wheat or barley, because they start growth early and grow 
rapidly, drawing heavily upon the moisture in the soil, 
thus frequently preventing the grass and clover from 
getting a good start. Oats, having wider leaves than wheat 
and barley, are likely to produce too much shade to render 
them an ideal nurse crop. In fertile soils, they are more 
likely to lodge and smother out the young plants. An- 
other reason why oats are not so desirable as wheat and 
barley in which to seed grasses and clovers is that 
they do not ripen so early as either of the other two, and 
are therefore not removed from the field until later in 
the season, thus retarding the new growth until late in 
the summer. Many farmers succeed in getting good 
stands of grasses and clovers in oats, but where this 
practice is followed, the best results are obtained by 
using an early variety of oats. 

145. Preparing the seed bed. — Perhaps none of the 
grain crops are seeded with as little preparation of the 
ground as are oats. This is due in part to the hardiness 
of the plant and in part to the desire to get the crop in 
early so as not to delay the planting of other spring crops, 
such as corn. In many places, oats are seeded on the 
corn ground without any previous preparation. Some- 
times they are sown broadcast and covered with a disk 
while in other cases they are sown with a disk drill. Some 
farmers follow the practice of breaking up the soil with a 
disk or spring tooth harrow, and then leveling it with a 
smoothing harrow before seeding. Still others plow the 
land and further fit it with the harrow. The best practice 
to follow will depend largely upon the nature of the soil, 
and upon the amount of time available for seeding the 
crop. On some types of soil the increase of yield obtained 



OATS 



157 



by plowing the land, over that secured by disking, or 
even entire lack of preparation, is not enough to pay for 
the extra labor involved. At the Ohio Station an experiment 
on silt loam soil, extending over a period of four years, re- 
sulted in higher yields from the practice of disking than from 
either no preparation 
or plowing. On some 
types of soil it is 
probable that disking 
would not result in 
an increased yield 
sufficient to justify 
the extra labor, while 
with other soils, par- 
ticularly those which 
are weedy, plowing 
may be desirable. 
Oats may either be 
sown broadcast and 
covered with a disk 
or spike toothed 
harrow, or they may 
be sown with a grain 
drill. The latter 
method is to be rec- 
ommended, as a more uniform stand may be secured 
and usually a larger yield is obtained. 

Commercial fertilizer and barnyard manure are not 
usually applied to the oat crop in the corn belt states. 
Experience has shown that larger returns from the ferti- 
lizers may usually be obtained if they are applied to some 
other crop in the rotation. Fertilization of oats fre- 
quently causes rank growth of straw without a corre- 




FlG. 



53. — Broadcasting oats 
way of seeding. 



the old 



158 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



spending increase of grain, and with the rank growth, 
lodging frequently results. Fertilizers may best be applied 
to the corn or wheat lands, except with very poor soils, 
where it may be desirable to fertilize the oats also. 

146. Time of seeding. — Oats are a cool weather crop 
and best results may usually be obtained from early 
rather than later seeding. Early seeding may be regarded 
as that done as soon as the soil is dry enough in the spring 
to get on to it with team and implements. In a time 
of seeding test at the Ohio Station, for a three-year aver- 
age, the earliest seed- 
ings outyielcled the 
latest seedings by 18.37 
bushels per acre. The 
weight per bushel was 
also influenced to a 
considerable extent by 
the time of seeding, 
the earlier seedings 
having heavier weight 

per bushel. This result was largely due to the fact that the 
earlier seeded plants completed their growth before hot 
weather, while those seeded later did not fill out as well 
on account of the hot weather. In the South, where 
winter oats are grown, fall seeding is practiced. The 
time of seeding varies with the latitude, in the northern 
part of this section the seeding being done in late Sep- 
tember, while farther south it is delayed until late October. 

147. Rate of seeding. — Before seeding, the oats should 
be run through a fanning mill equipped with proper 
screens to remove small and light kernels, sticks, trash, 
and weed seeds. This not only insures a more uniform 
rate of seeding, but also prevents the use of inferior seeds. 




Fig. 54. — Seeding oats with a drill. 



OATS 



159 




160 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



The usual rate of seeding oats varies from 6 to 10 or more 
pecks per acre, the most common rate being 8 or 9 pecks. 
The rate of seeding will depend to some extent upon the 
size of the kernels. Varieties with large kernels should 
be seeded more thickly than those with small grains, since 
there are not so many of the former per bushel. The 
variation of a few pecks in the rate of seeding does not 
usually affect the yield materially, since the plant adjusts 




Fig. 56. — Variation in stiffness of straw of two varieties of oats. 



itself to the environment by tillering. When seeded 
thinly, more tillers are produced, thus thickening up the 
stand. 

148. Harvesting. — The same methods are employed 
in harvesting the larger part of the oat crop as have been 
described for harvesting wheat. The time of cutting to 
secure the best quality of grain is after the grains have 
reached the hard dough stage, and the heads have turned 
yellow. If cut before this time, the grains will be shriv- 
eled, resulting in light weight per bushel. If cutting is 



OATS 



161 



delayed too long, the crop may become overripe and loss 
will occur by shattering. Oats usually contain more 
moisture at the time of cutting than wheat, and in order 
that they may dry thoroughly, the bundles are set up in 
smaller shocks than wheat. Usually 7 to 9 bundles form 
a shock. The shock should be well formed, since the 




Fig. 57. — Treating seed oats for smut. The formalin method. 



straws are not so stiff as those of wheat, and the shocks 
are more likely to go down, which will often result in 
injury to the quality of the grain from weathering. Oats 
may either be thrashed from the shock as soon as they 
have dried out, or they may be stacked or stored in the 
mow for later thrashing. 

149. Improvement of oats. — The same methods for 
the improvement of oats are employed as have been 
described in the paragraph on the improvement of wheat. 



M 



162 



FIELD CROP PliODUCTION 



Great variation in tlie earliness of maturity, stiffness of 
straw, resistance to rust, and abundance of yield are 
to be found in almost all varieties. A great opportunity 
for improving the crop is therefore within reach of each 
grower if he will but take advantage of it. 



INSECT ENEMIES AND FUNGOUS DISEASES 

150. Insect enemies. — There are no important insects which 
confine their attacks to the oat plant. Several insects that 

are destructive to wheat are also 
troublesome to oats, chief among 
which are the chinch bugs, grass- 
hoppers, and the army worms. 
The most important of these in- 
sects and the methods for their 
control have been discussed in the 
chapter on wheat, and as the same 
methods may be employed to pre- 
vent their ravages on oats, they 
need not be discussed again. 

151. Fungous diseases. — The 
most destructive diseases that 
attack the oat crop are the rusts 
and smuts. There are two kinds 
of rusts, the leaf rust and the 
stem rust, so called because they 
most commonly attack those 
parts of the plant. The leaf rust 
is more common than the stem 
rust, and is identified by the red 
spores on the leaves at harvest 
time. In seasons favorable for 
their development, the spores are 
frequently so plentiful as to ad- 
here to the harvesting machinery and the clothing of the har- 
vesters. There are two kinds of smuts that attack the oat 
plant. The loose smut is more common and far more destructive 
than the covered smut. The loose smut may be recognized in 




Fig. 58. — Covered and loose 
smut of oats. 



OATS 163 

the field by the black powdery spores that attack the panicle and 
prevent the grains and glumes from developing. The covered 
smut is similar in appearance to the leaf smut, but it does not 
attack the glumes, affecting only the kernels, which are replaced 
in the glumes by masses of black spores. Methods for con- 
trolling these smuts are the same as those employed in control- 
ling the stinking smut of wheat and have been described in con- 
nection with this disease of wheat (page 132). 



CHAPTER VII 

BARLEY 

The history of the development of barley in its rela- 
tion to man coincides with that of wheat. Both of these 
cereals have been closely identified with the progress of 
civilization, and the people of many nations, both ancient 
and modern, have depended upon them not only for food 
for their beasts of burden, but also for themselves. How 
long barley has been grown is not known, but evidence 
that it is one of the oldest of cultivated grains is to be 
found in the history of the earliest nations of which we 
have knowledge. Specimens of barley have been taken 
from the tombs of the ancient Egyptians, and coins 
used by these people bear figures of barley heads. The 
literature of the early writers of Egypt and also the earlier 
books of the Bible contain references to this plant. Barley 
was used at that time for making bread, and also, it is 
said, in the making of certain drinks. Botanists generally 
agree that the original home of barley was in the western 
part of Asia, where wild forms of it are still to be found. 
The people that inhabited this country in early days 
probably were the first to discover its usefulness and to 
cultivate it. From western Asia barley was introduced 
into almost all parts of Europe, where it was the chief 
bread plant, it is said, until the sixteenth century. Barley 
was introduced at an early date into America and was 

used by the colonists as food both for man and beast. 

164 



BARLEY 



165 



152. Botanical characters. — Barley, Hordeum sati- 
vum, has much the same appearance as wheat, differing 
from the latter slightly in the length of the culms, the 
shape of the leaves, and the structure of the spike. The 
roots of barley are somewhat less extensive than those of 








Ster/Ze 



Fig. 59. — Spikelets of barley: 1, two-rowed type; 2, the six-rowed 
bearded ; 5, six-rowed beardless ; 4. showing three spikelets and the 
relative position of parts. 

wheat, and do not grow so deeply. The culms are not 
usually as tall, and the percentage of straw to grain is less 
than that of wheat. Barley produces rather more culms 
per plant than wheat, under favorable conditions produc- 
ing as many as 15 or more per plant. The leaves are some- 
what broader than those of the other cereals. The more 
marked characters that distinguish it from wheat are the 
arrangement and structure of the spikelets and the shape 



166 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



of the glumes. The spikelets are but one-flowered, and 
are inclosed in the flowering glume and palea, both of 
which, in all varieties except the hull-less, cling to the 

kernel after thrashing. The ker- 
nels, after the glumes or hulls are 
removed, have much the same 
appearance as wheat kernels, 
being creased on one side like 
wheat, but having more rounded 
sides and a more pointed tip. 
The flowering glumes bear stiff, 
sharply barbed awns, which vary 
from 3 to 6 inches in length. 
The awns or beards of barley are 
much stiffer and are more dis- 
agreeable to handle than those 
of wheat or rye. The outer glume 
is awl or bristle shaped and varies 
in length from f to li inches in 
length. The spikelets are sessile 
and three are produced from each 
joint of the rachis, differing in this 
respect from both wheat and rye. 
The percentage of hull in barley 
varies from 10 to 25 per cent or 
more, the average being about 15 
or 16 per cent. The character of 
the endosperm varies from mealy 
to glassy or vitreous. The char- 
acter of the endosperm also varies with the variety, 
the stage of maturity at which the plant was, cut and the 
climate. The fully matured kernel usually is more 
mealy in character than the immature one, and contains 




Fig. 60. — A head of two 
rowed barley (side view). 



BARLEY 



167 



a higher percentage of starch and a lower 
percentage of protein than those of glassy 
texture. The chemical composition of the 
hulled kernel is about the same as that of 
wheat. When the hull is also considered, 
the percentage composition is changed on 
account of the crude fiber of the hull. The 
legal weight per bushel in most states is 
48 pounds. The weight per bushel may 
vary a few pounds either way, a high 
weight per bushel being associated with 
high percentage of starch. 

153. Types of barley. — Barleys may 
be divided into two classes, namely, two- 
rowed and six-rowed. The basis for this 
classification is to be found in the appear- 
ance of the spikelets on the rachis. In 
the six-rowed type, three spikelets, each 
of which produces one kernel, are pro- 
duced at each joint of the rachis. In 
the two-rowed type three spikelets are 
produced at each joint of the rachis, but 
only the center one produces a kernel, the 
two lateral spikelets not fully developing. 
A head of the latter type has the appear- 
ance of having only two rows, one on 
either side of the rachis, while the former 
type gives the appearance of having six 
rows, three on each side of the rachis. 
The two-rowed varieties usually grow a little taller than 
the six-rowed, and the kernels are somewhat larger and 
longer than those of the latter type. In the United 
States the two-rowed varieties are largely grown in the 



Fig. 61. — A 
head of six-rowed 
barley. 



168 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

Dakotas, the Chevalier and Hanna being the most promi- 
nent varieties. The two-rowed types are more commonly 
grown in Europe, while in this country the six-rowed 
varieties are more common, the principal varieties of 
which are Manchuria, Oderbrucker, and Bay Brew. 

Barleys may also be divided into the bearded and 
beardless varieties. The beardless varieties are not so 
commonly grown as the bearded. They may also be 
divided into spring and winter varieties. The winter 
varieties are not so hardy as winter wheat and are largely 
grown in the Southern States or on the Pacific Coast. 
The spring varieties are of both the two and the six rowed 
types, and are grown in the northern half of the United 
States. While in most varieties of barley the hull adheres 
to the kernel after thrashing, in some few the hull is 
shed during thrashing like wheat. The hull-less varieties 
are usually named after the color of the grains. Thus 
the common varieties of this type are white hull-less 
and black hull-less. Hull-less barleys weigh sixty pounds 
per bushel. 

USES OF BARLEY 

154. The making of malt. — Over 50 per cent of the 
barley crop produced in the United States each year is 
used for the making of malt, which is used in the manu- 
facture of beer and other malt liquors. Malt is the grain 
artificially germinated so as to induce certain changes in 
its composition. When the grain germinates, a nitrog- 
enous ferment, diastase, which exists in the kernel, is 
increased in amount. The diastase acts upon the starch 
of the kernel, changing it into a soluble sugar and dextrin. 
The object of malting is to obtain the largest amount of 
sugar possible by converting the starch of the barley 
grain into sugar, which is then dissolved and changed 



BARLEY 169 

into alcohol by fermentation. The process of changing 
barley into malt is divided into four stages : steeping, 
couching, flooring, and kiln-drying. The barley when it 
comes to the maltster is first cleaned to remove all 
foreign matter and broken or cracked kernels. It is 
then steeped or soaked in large tanks for two or three 
days, or until the kernels may be crushed with the fingers. 
The grain is then removed to the couching floor, where 
it is spread out in a layer about 20 inches thick. In 
from 20 to 36 hours the grain heats and begins to germi- 
nate. It is then spread out in a layer 10 to 12 inches 
thick and turned every few hours, the layer being gradu- 
ally reduced in thickness to about 4 inches. During this 
time the grain continues to germinate, and when the plu- 
mule is about three-fourths the length of the grain, the 
largest amount of diastase is present and the germination 
is stopped by removing the grain to a large kiln, where it 
is heated to a temperature sufficient to kill the germ. 
The sprouts are then removed by a special machine. They 
are placed on the market under the name of malt sprouts 
and are used extensively for stock food. After the 
sprouts are removed, the dry malt is crushed between 
rollers, and other cereals, principally rice and corn, are 
added. The barley produces more than enough diastase 
to change its own starch into sugar, so a small quantity 
of other cereals may be added to increase the amount of 
starch. The dry mash together with the other cereals 
is then placed in the mash tub and when water is added 
and the mixture is heated to a temperature of 150° Fahr- 
enheit the diastase rapidly changes the starch into 
sugar. A liquid known as " wort " results which contains 
the sugar in solution. The mash tub has a sieve-like 
bottom upon which the hulls settle, permitting the liquid 



170 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

to be drawn off below, the hulls forming a filter. After 
the liquid is drawn off, the residue that remains in the 
tub is placed on the market and sold as " brewers' grain," 
which is used extensively for stock feeding. The wort is 
then boiled with hops to prevent it from souring, and 
later is cooled and yeast is added. In a short time fer- 
mentation takes place, which forms the malt liquor. 
The different varieties of malt liquors are formed by 
varying the different processes in malting. 

155. Good malting barley. — Barley is better adapted 
for the making of malt than other cereals, because it 
contains a greater amount of ferment than other grains, 
and also because it contains a lesser amount of undesirable 
albuminoids. The husks are also of service in protecting 
the plumule during germination, and later they serve 
as a filter when the wort is removed from the tub. A good 
malting barley should have uniform, plump, starchy 
kernels. The vitality should not be less than 95 per 
cent and the husks should be pale straw color and not 
possessed of deep wrinkles. Musty, dirty barley, or that 
containing many foreign seeds, is not desirable for malting. 
On the market malting barley commands the best prices, 
there often being a difference of 30 cents or more per 
bushel between the price paid for malt and feeding 
barley. 

156. Feeding value. — The feeding value of barley, 
when the hull and kernel are considered, is about equal 
to that of corn, and it is quite extensively used in some 
sections of the country for that purpose. It may either 
be ground into meal or fed whole. In the Central West 
barley is used largely for feeding hogs, cattle, and sheep. 
On the Pacific Coast, where little corn or oats is grown, 
it is used extensively for feeding horses. Barley straw, 



BARLEY 171 

while comparatively nutritious, is not generally used for 
feeding on account of the beards, which make it unpalat- 
able to animals. In some parts of the Western and 
Southern States barley is quite extensively cut for hay. 
Barley hay has high feeding value, and if cut before 
the beards become stiff, makes a palatable feed. When 
cutting for hay is delayed until the beards are stiff, injury 
to the mouths of the animals to which it is fed sometimes 
results. In some places barley is grown for pasture and 
is frequently used for hogs and sheep. 

PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 

157. The world's production. — The world's produc- 
tion of barley for the five years 1907-1911 was approx- 
imately 1400 million bushels. Of this amount, approx- 
imately 400 million bushels, or over one-fourth, was 
produced in Russia. The United States ranks next in 
total production, the average annual production for the 
above five years being approximately 165 million bushels. 
The other countries producing large amounts, in order 
of their production, were : Germany, Austria-Hungary, 
Japan, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Of 
the total production in the United States, California 
produced over 20 per cent and Minnesota over 19 per 
cent. The other states producing large amounts in order 
of their importance are : Wisconsin, North Dakota, 
South Dakota, Iowa, and Washington. While barley 
is produced in many other states, the acreage is com- 
paratively small, about 85 per cent of the total produc- 
tion being produced in the above named states. The 
average yield per acre for the United States is approx- 
imately 25 bushels, a considerably higher one than that 
of wheat and rye. 



172 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

158. Exports and imports. — The average annual 
export of barley from the United States for the ten years 
1902-1911 has been approximately 10 million bushels. 
Almost all the export grain went to European countries 
for malting purposes. During the same ten years, the 
average annual import of barley has been approximately 
80 million bushels, some of which was imported from 
Europe for use as seed, much of the remainder came 
from Canada. The average farm price per bushel on De- 
cember 1st for the same period has been 53.6 cents per 
bushel, with a range of price varying from 40 to 86 cents 
per bushel. 

ADAPTATION 

159. Climate and soil. — Barley is best adapted to a 
warm, dry climate. It requires less water during the 
growing season than wheat, oats, or corn, and may be 
grown in places where the climate is not adapted to the 
growing of corn or oats. While best adapted to warm 
cUmates, it may be grown farther north, as the required 
length of the growing season is less than that for oats and 
wheat. While it grows best on comparatively dry soil, 
good yields may be obtained where there is abundant 
rainfall, if the soil is well drained. Barley grows best 
on well-drained loams. It is more greatly influenced by 
the fertihty of the soil than is almost any other grain crop. 
On poor soils the straw is short and the yield of grain is 
low, while on fertile soils it grows taller and produces 
more abundantly. While this is generally true of all 
crops, the variation is probably greater with barley than 
with other crops. Barley will withstand a more alkaline 
condition of the soil than oats or wheat and may there- 
fore be grown in certain sections of the West where the 
latter crops cannot be grown successfully. 



BARLEY 173 



METHODS OF CULTURE 

160. Preparing the soil. — The methods employed in 
preparing the soil for barley will, of course, depend upon 
whether it is to be seeded in the fall or spring, and upon 
the preceding crop. Barley may replace either oats or 
wheat in the rotation, usually following corn, potatoes, 
or some other cultivated crop. It is commonly used 
as a nurse crop for grasses and clover, and because of its 
short straws and early maturity, is often preferred for 
this purpose to either oats or wheat. Fall seeding re- 
quires a well-prepared seed bed, and if the preceding 
crop can be removed in time to permit of plowing, better 
results will be obtained than if the seed bed is prepared 
without plowing. When winter barley follows cowpeas, 
soy beans, or potatoes, a good seed bed may usually be 
prepared by disking and harrowing without plowing. 
When winter barley follows corn, usually no preparation 
can be given the seed bed, but much can be done to favor 
the crop if the corn is well cultivated during its growing 
season, to conserve moisture and free the field from 
weeds. In the seeding of spring barley the seed bed may 
best be prepared if the land is plowed in the fall. If it 
is necessary to delay the plowing until spring, it should 
be done early in the season and worked down so as to 
present a fine, mellow surface and a rather firm sub-soil. 
Barley requires a somewhat finer and more mellow seed 
bed than oats, and usually more care must be taken in 
preparing the soil, if a good crop is to be expected. 
In parts of the country where there is little rainfall 
during the growing season the soil should be handled 
in such a way as to conserve as much moisture as 
possible. 



174 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 




BARLEY 175 

161. Seeding. — The small and shrunken kernels and 
weed seeds, together with other foreign matter, should be 
removed by a fanning mill from the barley before seeding. 
Barley may either be seeded with a grain drill or sown 
broadcast. The former method is to be preferred in 
all cases, as by its practice higher yields are secured, and 
winter barley that is seeded with the drill is less likely 
to be winter-killed. The rate of seeding with the grain 
drill varies from 6 to 8 pecks per acre. When broad- 
cast, a somewhat heavier rate is to be recommended. 
In sections of the country having little rainfall, a lower 
rate of seeding, sometimes as low as 3 pecks per acre, 
gives better results than a heavier rate. The time of 
seeding spring barley is slightly later than that for oats, 
since the young barley plants are not so hardy as those of 
wheat. Winter barley is seeded usually in September or 
early October. 

162. Harvesting. — Barley is at the proper stage of 
maturity for cutting when the straw and heads are a 
golden yellow color, and the kernels are in the hard dough 
stage. If cut while the straw is still green, the kernels 
will later become shriveled and will retain an undesirable 
color. If the barley is grown for the market, great 
care should be exercised in shocking so as to prevent 
bleaching or weathering, which greatly injures the 
appearance, and thereby decreases the market value. 
The shocks should be well formed so that they will not 
be blown over by the wind, and well capped so as to 
shed the rain. If a thrasher is available, the crop should 
be thrashed as soon as the bundles have dried out. Some- 
times, however, it is necessary to wait some time for the 
thrashers, in which case the barley can be best protected 
from weathering and discoloring by stacking. It should 



176 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

not be stacked, however, until the bundles are well dried 
out, or else they may mold or become musty in the 
stack. 

INSECT ENEMIES AND FUNGOUS DISEASES 

163. Insect enemies. — ■ The chinch bug and the Hessian 
fly are the most troublesome enemies of growing barley. These 
insects, together with methods for their control, are discussed 
in the chapter on wheat, and need not be repeated here. 

164. Fungous diseases. — Barley is attacked by several 
diseases, the most important of which are the rusts and the 
smuts. There are two kinds of rust, the leaf rust and the stem 
rust, which sometimes do the crop considerable injury. They 
may best be controlled by early seeding and the growing of 
early maturing varieties, which may usually be harvested before 
the rusts cause serious injury. 

Barley is attacked by two kinds of smut, the loose smut and 
the covered smut. The loose smut may be controlled by treat- 
ing the seed by the hot water method discussed in the chapter 
on wheat, while the covered smut may be controlled by the 
formalin treatment similar to that employed in treating wheat 
for stinking smut (page 132). 



CHAPTER VIII 

RYE 

Rye has not been cultivated nearly so long as has either 
wheat or barley. It was not known in ancient Egypt 
and Greece, and according to Roman writers who lived 
about the beginning of the Christian era, it was at that 
time a new plant in that country. The original home of 
rye is thought to have been in northeastern Europe, 
where wild rye, which is probably either the ancestor of 
our cultivated rye or a closely related form, may be 
found growing wild. With the development of agri- 
culture in Europe during the past 1500 years, the culture 
of rye was extended, and it has held a place of great 
importance in the agriculture of many nations. Within 
the last half century, however, the culture of rye in all 
rye-growing countries has been declining, as the culture 
of some of the other cereals such as wheat, corn, and oats 
has been extended. 

165. Botanical characters. — Rye, Secale cereale, in 
its botanical characters and relations, its general appear- 
ance and methods of culture, resembles wheat more closely 
than do any of the other cereals. It differs from wheat 
in that when the kernel germinates, it produces four 
instead of three temporary roots. The culms are longer 
and more slender than those of wheat, sometimes reaching 
a height of 6 or 7 feet on fertile soils. The spikelet has 
but two flowers, each of which usually produces a kernel. 
N 177 



178 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



The spike of rye may be distinguished from that of wheat 
in that the outer glumes are long and narrow, and not 
boat-shaped like those of wheat. The flowering glumes 
are always awned, and as the plant ripens, the flowering 
glume and palea spread apart, exposing part of the kernel. 
The spike is usually longer than that of 
wheat, sometimes reaching a length of 6 or 
7 inches. The number of spikelets varies 
from 20 to 30, and unlike wheat, the lower 
spikelets are fertile and produce kernels. 
The rye kernel is longer and narrower than 
that of wheat, it is less plump, and the furrow 
or crease is less marked. The structure of 
the kernel is similar to that of wheat, while 
in chemical composition it contains somewhat 
less protein and fat. Rye flour, however, 
contains gluten, and light, coarse bread 
may be made from it. There are both 
spring and winter varieties, the latter being 
the one most commonly grown. 



USES OF RYE 

166. Use of the grain. — The principal 
use of rye is in the making of bread for 
human consumption. In Russia and Ger- 
many, rye bread is more commonly eaten 
^'""'oi'^^^^"^ than that made from wheat. Germany 
devotes about 10 per cent of her cultivated 
land to rye, and only 3.5 per cent to the growing of wheat. 
Rye bread has always been held in high esteem by the Ger- 
mans, and until recently was used in the rations of the 
soldiers of the Germany army. About 20 years ago, how- 
ever, on account of the shortage of rye, wheat bread was 



BYE 179 

issued in the soldiers' rations, and since that time its use 
has gradually increased. In the United States only a small 
portion of the rye crop produced here is used in the making 
of bread. Rye bread is not held in such high esteem by 
Americans as it is by the Germans and Russians, and 
much of the use of the rye for this purpose in the United 
States is due to demands for it by the foreign population. 
Rye flour does not contain a large amount of gluten, and 
does not make such a light colored nor so large a loaf 
as that made from the wheat flour. Much of the rye in 
this country is used in the making of alcoholic beverages. 
The grain is also used to some extent for feeding live 
stock, usually being ground and fed in combination with 
other grains to hogs or horses. 

167. Use as green manure and forage. — Rye holds 
an important place as a green manure crop. Its hardi- 
ness and ability to grow upon poor soils make it especially 
valuable for this purpose, since it grows well on those soils 
that are most greatly in need of assistance. Rye is also 
used for pasture and as a soiling crop. As a soiling crop 
it is especially valuable for early spring feeding. While 
it will yield the largest amount of green feed if cut when 
in full head, it will yield a very fair amount of palatable 
forage if cut earlier. As a pasture crop, it is available 
both in the fall and spring. If seeded rather early in the 
fall, usually it may be pastured for some time in the 
fall and again for a few weeks in the spring, without 
materially reducing the yield of grain. Sometimes the 
crop is sown especially for pasture during the early part 
of the year, and is plowed up in time for seeding a crop 
of late potatoes or some other late crop. It may also 
be pastured for several weeks in the spring and plowed 
under in time for corn. Rye straw is of little use as 



180 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



feed, but is highly prized for use as bedding. Much of 
the straw is used in the manufacture of paper, baskets, 
boxes, hats, mats, and other similar articles. 




Fig. 64. — Plowing under rye for green manure. 



PRODUCTION AND ADAPTATION 

168. Production. — The world's annual production 
of rye for the five years 1907-1911 was approximately 
1500 million bushels, being slightly greater than that of 
barley, and slightly less than one-half that of wheat, 
and less than one-half that of oats for the same time. 
Of the world's crop, about one-half was produced in Euro- 
pean Russia and about one-fourth in Germany. The 
production of rye slightly exceeds that of wheat in Russia, 
while in Germany over three times as much rye is pro- 
duced as wheat. The other countries producing com- 
paratively large amounts are Austria-Hungary, Australia, 



RYE 181 

France, Spain, and Sweden. Some rye is produced in the 
other European countries, but the amount is small as 
compared with that of the countries named above. In 
the United States the rye is exceeded in value by all 
the other cereals. Of the world's production for the 
five years 1907-1911 the United States produced but 
31 million bushels. Of this amount almost 50 per cent 
was produced in the three states, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, 
and Michigan. Other states producing comparatively 
large amounts are Minnesota, New York, Nebraska, and 
Illinois. While rye is grown in almost every state, it 
is of little importance as a grain crop in all excepting those 
named above. In some states rye is grown more for 
green manure and for pasture than for grain, and is there- 
fore not included in the above consideration. The yield 
per acre in the United States for the ten years 1902 to 
1911 was 15.9 bushels. The yield per acre during the 
same period in Russia was approximately 12 bushels, 
in Germany, 26.5 bushels, and in Austria-Hungary, 20 
bushels. 

169. Adaptation. — Rye is adapted to a wide climatic 
range. It is more hardy than wheat and will stand more 
severe winters, so it may be grown farther north. It 
may also be grown in the South, and seems to be little 
affected by warm weather. Rye may be grown success- 
fully on almost all types of soil, being especially adapted 
to light, sandy soils. It is sometimes called the grain of 
poverty because it can be grown on soils too poor, or where 
the climate is too severe, to grow the other cereal crops 
successfully. Because of its ability to grow on poor 
soils, fields of fertile soil are usually reserved for the other 
cereals, and rye is grown on the poorer and less desirable 
ground. While rye grows fairly well on poor soils, much 



182 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



larger yields may be obtained on fertile soils, and it will 
respond well to fertilization on poor soils. 



i^M^mmJtLhmKM 




Fig. 65. — Rye seeded in corn at the last cultivation for use as fall 
pasture and green manure. 



METHODS OF CULTURE 

170. Seeding. — The cultural methods for rye are very 
similar to those described for wheat, and need not be 
repeated again. Rye may be seeded somewhat earlier 
than wheat, as it is less troubled by the Hessian fly. 
It is desirable to seed rather early if the crop is to be 
pastured in the fall. It may be seeded in the standing 
corn before cutting, or the seeding may be delayed until 
after the corn is in the shock. Sometimes rye is seeded 
in the corn at the time of the last cultivation. However, 
usually not much is gained by seeding as early as this, 
since the plant will make but little growth until the corn 
ripens. The usual rate of seeding is from 1.5 to 2 bushels 
per acre. 



BYE 183 

171. Fungous diseases and insect enemies. — The most 
common as well as the most harmful fungous disease of rye is 
ergot. The spores of ergot enter the ovule when the plant is in 
bloom, gradually develop, replacing the ovule, and when mature, 
the growth from them is several times longer than the seed. 
The decrease in yield of grain due to ergot is slight, the chief 
injury from it being the ill effects produced on live stock that 
consume grain infested with it. The only remedy is to remove 
from the field before cutting the heads that are affected by it. 
Many of the grasses and occasionally wheat are also affected by 
ergot. Rye is less seriously troubled with insects than wheat, 
and little or no difficulty is usually experienced with them. 



CHAPTER IX 
RICE. BUCKWHEAT 

RICE 

Rice is one of the oldest of cultivated cereals and has 
held an important place in the dietary of the Chinese 
nation from time immemorial. For thousands of years 
before the dawn of the Christian era and continuing down 
to the present day, rice has been the staple article of food 
for the people of China. It is probable that China is 
its original home, and from there it was carried into 
Japan and India, and later, in the fifteenth century a.d., it 
was introduced into southern Europe. Its first introduc- 
tion into the United States was in the Virginia colony in 
1647, when it was brought into South Carolina. From 
this time on it has been grown to some extent in the United 
States. 

172. Botanical characters. — Rice, Oryza saliva, is one 
of the members of the great grass family, grown for its 
grain. It is closely related to wild rice, another species 
of the same genus, which grows wild in the tropical 
regions of both hemispheres. It is also a near relative 
of Canadian rice, a wild species that grows in rocky places 
throughout North America, and one which was used exten- 
sively by the Indians as food. Rice is an annual, with a 
shallow, fibrous root system, growing from 2 to 6 feet 
in height, the average height being from 4 to 5 feet. 

184 



RICE 



185 



Like other cereals, it stools or tillers abundantly under 
favorable conditions. The seeds are borne in a loose head 
or panicle, somewhat more compressed than that of oats. 
The spikelets are one-flowered and attached to the branches 
of the panicles with a short pedicel. 
The outer glumes are short scales 
or bristles, and the flowering glume 
and palea, varying in color from light 
to dark yellow or brown, tightly 
envelop the kernel which remains 
attached when the grain is thrashed. 
The flowering glume sometimes 
bears an awn. When the glumes 
are removed, the kernel is slightly 
furrowed, is hard and vitreous, and 
white in color. There are two gen- 
eral types of rice ; namely, the low- 
land and the upland. The lowland 
rice is grown in low, level fields 
which can be irrigated from rivers 
or lakes. The upland rice is grown 
without irrigation as corn or cotton 
is grown. Almost all of the rice 
grown in this country is of the low- 
land type. 

173. Uses. — It is a difficult task 
to tell the story of the role that 
rice has played in the dietary of 
the race. For centuries it has been the '^ staff of life " to the 
people of southern Asia and to-day is one of the most im- 
portant starchy foods of all civilized nations. The United 
States, while producing a larger amount, finds it necessary 
to import about 200 million pounds yearly to meet the de- 




FlG. 



66. — A panicle 
rice. 



of 



186 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

mands within her borders. In China, Japan, and other 
Oriental countries rice is the chief food of the people, and 
is supplemented with seeds of millets, sorghums, and 
soy beans. The dietary for the average citizen of these 
countries is, therefore, quite different from that of the 
citizens of our country. When rice is thrashed, the hulls 
or glumes remain on the kernel, but before it is placed 
on the market they are removed, and in this country the 
kernels are polished by special machines to give them the 
glossy appearance demanded by our trade. In polishing 
the kernels, much of the food value is lost because in the 
process the germ, which contains the most of the oil, is 
removed. The by-products of rice are the hulls, which 
are of little value, and the bran or rice polish, which is of 
considerable value as a stock food. The straw is not 
palatable and is of little use for stock food or for any pur- 
pose other than for fertilizer. 

PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 

174. The world's crop. — In the tropical and semi- 
tropical regions of both hemispheres, rice is a very impor- 
tant crop, the total annual production for the world being 
approximately 150 billion pounds. Of this amount Asia 
produces about 135 billion pounds. The principal rice- 
producing countries of Asia are India, with an annual 
production of 80 billion pounds, China, with 40 billion, 
Japan, 16 billion, and the Philippine Islands producing 
800 million pounds. Europe produces about 1 billion 
pounds annually, Italy and Spain producing by far the 
bulk of this crop. South America, principally Brazil 
and British Guiana and Peru, have an annual production 
of approximately 400 million pounds. The United States 
has an annual production of about 700 million pounds. 



BICE 187 

Of this amount, Louisiana produces over one-half, Texas, 
about one-third, Arkansas, more than one-fifth, the re- 
mainder of the total crop of this country being produced in 
comparatively small acreage of the remaining Gulf States 
and California, The rice industry in the United States 
started with small acreages in South Carolina in colonial 
days, and later it was introduced and grown in a small 
way in Georgia. These two states produced the bulk 
of this crop until after the Civil War. After the war, the 
rice industry declined in these states, but the acreage 
increased in the Southern States along the Mississippi, 
which up to this time had produced but little. Portions 
of these states, on account of their location in relation to 
rivers and the presence of good wells, are well adapted to 
the growing of rice, and the industry has developed rapidly 
within the past two decades. 

The average yield of rice per acre in the United States 
is about 32 bushels of rough rice, weighing 45 pounds per 
bushel, which is equivalent to about 1000 pounds of cleaned 
or hulled rice. The average price per bushel received by 
the grower is about 75 cents, varying of course from year 
to year, depending upon the demands and the abundance 
of foreign-grown product on the market. The value of 
the rice crop in the United States is, in round numbers, 
approximately 17 million dollars. 

ADAPTATION AND CULTURAL METHODS 

175. Adaptation. — Rice is a tropical or semi-tropical 
plant, and requires a long, hot growing season, with moist, 
humid climate. It is grown therefore only in low-lying 
regions, with a plentiful supply of moisture and long 
growing season. Almost all of the rice is grown on soils 
that can be supplied with water by irrigation. Soils 



188 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

that can be irrigated and drained so as to quickly remove 
the water when desired, and that become firm after drain- 
ing, so that machinery and animals can pass over them, are 
best adapted to rice culture. Low-lying fields along rivers 
and near lakes in tropical or semi-tropical regions are by 
virtue of their location well adapted to rice culture. The 
upland types of rice grown on non-irrigated lands may be 
grown upon any soil that will grow corn or cotton. 

176. Cultural methods. — In the culture of lowland 
varieties of rice, the field is plowed either in the spring or 




Fig. 67. — Harvesting rice in Arkansas. 

fall and worked down into a fine seed bed. The seed may 
be sown broadcast or drilled in with a grain drill. The 
grain drill gives better results, since the seed can be placed 
at a uniform depth in the soil, which favors uniform germi- 
nation and growth. From one to two bushels of seed are 
required per acre. Seeding is done any time from the 
middle of April to the last of May. The growing season 
is long, and if late seeding is practiced, the harvesting is 
delayed until late fall. Some growers begin the seeding 
early and extend the operation for some time, in order 
that a larger acreage may be grown and harvested with 



BICE. BUCKWHEAT 189 

a minimum of equipment. When the rice plants are 
seven or eight inches high, the field is flooded with water 
to a depth of four to six inches. The flood water is main- 
tained over the field until the grain is in the dough stage, 
when it is drained off to allow the soil to dry sufficiently 
to bear up the harvesting machinery. The crop is usu- 
ally cut with a grain binder, the grain being handled in 
the same manner as any small grain crop. The rice is 
thrashed with an ordinary thrasher and stored in bags or 
barrels holding 162 pounds. The grower usually reckons 
his crops by barrels rather than by bushels, as is the cus- 
tom with wheat or oats. 

BUCKW^HEAT 

Buckwheat has been cultivated for many centuries in 
England and in European countries, where it has furnished 
a considerable portion of the bread flour of the poor 
classes of people. It was introduced into the United 
States in colonial times and for many years was an im- 
portant article of diet in the Nev/ England and Central 
States. Buckwheat gets its name from the German Buch- 
weizen, which means beechwheat. It was called beech- 
wheat by the Germans because of the resemblance of the 
grains to beechnuts. 

177. Description. — Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculen- 
tum, belongs to the Polygonaceae, or dock family, which 
includes in its membership such troublesome weeds as 
the dock, sorrel, and smartweed. Buckwheat, therefore, 
is not a true cereal, but because of its similar cultural 
requirements and adaptation, it is usually classed with 
them. Buckwheat in the character of its root system is 
unlike the cereals in that it has a tap root. The tap root 
extends down rather deeply into the soil, and from the upper 



190 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



portion of it several branches are given off. The total 
root development as compared with that of the cereals 
is not large. The plant produces but one stem from 
each seed, and does not thicken up the stand by tillering 
as do the cereals. It has other means, however, of 

adapting itself to the 
environment. The 
main stem branches 
more or less freely, 
depending upon the 
thickness of planting 
and other environ- 
mental factors. The 
stems grow from two 
to five feet in height, 
the average probably 
being about three. 
The leaves are ar- 
ranged alternately, 
and the petioles vary 
in length from ex- 
tremely short to as 
much as four inches 
or more. The leaves are heart-shaped, somewhat longer 
than they are broad, and vary in length from two to 
four inches. 

The flowers are borne at the top of the stem upon 
peduncles that grow out from the axils of the leaves. The 
flowers are peculiar in that they have no petals. The 
sepals of the calyx, however, are rather large and have the 
appearance of petals. The color of the flowers is pinkish 
white, tinged with red. They appear long before the plant 
is full-grown, and they continue to appear until the 




Fig. 68. — Buckwheat in bloom. 



BUCKWHEAT 191 

plant is killed by frost. The plant at harvest, therefore, 
may contain both flowers and mature seeds. A field of 
buckwheat in bloom is a beautiful sight and furnishes 
pasture for all sorts of bees and nectar-loving insects. 

The mature seed is three-angled, inclosed in hull of 
gray or brown color, and varies in size with the variety, 
usually being about one-tenth of an inch along each 
edge. The legal weight per bushel in most states is 48 
pounds. 

178. Uses. — - Buckwheat cakes have long been accorded 
a place of high favor on the breakfast menu of winter days. 
Formerly their excellence was known only to the rural 
population, but now they have won a place of favor 
on the tables of the city dwellers. Almost all of the 
buckwheat produced is used in the making of buck- 
wheat flour, which now commands a high price on the 
market. Buckwheat middlings, a by-product of the 
milling of the flour, are highly prized for stock food. 
The straw, if protected from the weather, is readily 
eaten by live stock. 

179. Production. — The buckwheat crop in the United 
States for the ten years 1903-1912 shows an annual average 
production of approximately 16 million bushels. Only 
about 800 thousand acres are devoted to this crop, almost 
all of which are in the northeast quarter of the United 
States, Pennsylvania and New York producing in 1912 
over 80 per cent of the total crop. Other states producing 
relatively large amounts are, Michigan, with 1 million 
bushels. West Virginia, with 880 thousand bushels, 
Virginia, 516 thousand, Ohio, 410 thousand, Wisconsin, 290 
thousand, and Maryland, 210 thousand bushels. Other 
states having small acreages of buckwheat are the New 
England States, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, and Iowa. 



192 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

The yield per acre varies from 10 to 50 bushels, the 
average yield being probably about 20 bushels. The 
average farm value of buckwheat per bushel for the past 
ten years has been about 60 cents. 

180. Cultural methods. — Buckwheat is best adapted 
to a cool, moist climate. High temperature and excessive 
rainfall during the later period of growth is disastrous 
to the crop, as such weather blasts the flowers. Buckwheat 
will grow on a great variety of soils, and is especially well 
adapted to those which are thin and light. Most fre- 
quently it is grown on soils too poor or rough to produce 
good yields of other crops. The preparation of the seed 
bed usually is given little attention, but experience has 
shown that the crop will respond to more considerate 
treatment with sufficient increase of yield to more than 
compensate for the extra labor. The land is usually 
plowed as for the cereals, but too frequently the plowing 
is delayed until late in the season, which results in a seed 
bed of poor physical condition. Early plowing and 
proper preparation to secure a firm, well-pulverized seed 
bed is most likely to result in a profitable yield. 

181. Seeding. — Buckwheat will mature in a shorter 
season than any of the other grain crops. If favorable 
weather prevails, it may be harvested in 8 to 12 weeks after 
seeding. The seeding is usually done in June or early 
July, and it may be sown broadcast or put in with the grain 
drill. The grain drill is to be recommended, as by its use 
a more uniform rate of seeding is secured. The rate of 
seeding varies from 3 to 5 pecks per acre. 

182. Harvesting. — The crop should be cut before the 
first heavy frost. In New York and Pennsylvania almost 
all of the crop is cut with the grain binder, a hand cradle, 
or a self-rake. It is allowed to dry in the swath for a few 



BUCKWHEAT 193 

days before it is set up in the shock. Thrashing may be 
done with the grain thrasher, but much of the crop in 
this country is thrashed with the flail. The most com- 
mon varieties of buckwheat are Japanese and Silver 
Hull. 



CHAPTER X 

THE PERENNIAL GRASSES. — TIMOTHY, BLUE- 
GRASS, RED TOP 

TIMOTHY 

The grass timothy derives its most common name from 
Timothy Hanson of Maryland, who is said to have intro- 
duced it from England in 1720. It is also known in some 
parts of the coimtry, particularly in New England, as 
Herd's grass. This name comes from John Herd, who, 
it is said, found it growing wild in the swamps of New 
Hampshire early in the eighteenth century. Because of 
the appearance of the head, the grass is sometimes called 
meadow cat's tail. Whether Herd or Hanson should 
have the credit for discovering the adaptability of this 
grass to American agriculture cannot be determined. Both 
of them perhaps deserve particular credit for calling atten- 
tion to its value and assisting in its distribution. Timothy 
has been cultivated in this country for two centuries and 
is by far the most important hay grass, furnishing almost 
all of the hay found on the eastern markets. It is also 
of considerable importance in Europe, but it does not 
attain there the importance that it does in this country. 

183. Description. — Timothy, Phleum pratense, is a 
perennial and has the characteristic fibrous root system 
of the members of the grass family. Compared with 
other forage grasses, it may be said to be deep rooted. 

194 



THE PERENNIAL GRASSES 



195 



Underground root stalks or stolons are common, although 
many plants do not have them. The culms or stems are 
usually erect. Sometimes, however, they are decumbent 
at the base. Several stems usually are produced from 
one root system. This is due to the production of tillers 
from the nodes near the ground, similar 
to the stooling of the cereals. When the 
plant is not crowded, the tillers in turn 
produce several stems, and when grow- 
ing under field conditions ordinarily from 
6 to 15 stems are produced by a single 
plant. The culms vary from 2 to 5 feet 
in height, depending upon the fertility 
of the soil and upon other factors affect- 
ing growth. The node at the base of the 
culm is often enlarged into a tuber. 
This condition is common when the 
plant is growing on dry soils. When 
growing in wet or moist lands, the 
tuber is small, or in some cases not 
present at all. This character distin- 
guishes timothy from the other forage 
grasses. 

The leaves number from 2 to 8 and 
have a long sheath and blade in com- 
parison with those of other grasses. 
The leaf blade is flat and rather rough, and varies with 
different plants in length and width. Timothy, when 
compared with other forage grasses, has a rather high 
percentage of leaves to stems, although the proportion 
may vary somewhat with individual plants or strains or 
with the thickness of the stand, thick seeding producing 
fine stems and slightly higher percentage of leaves. The 




Fig. 69. — Timothy 
in bloom. 



196 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

inflorescence carried at the top of each culm is a spike. 
The spike or head varies from 2 to 12 inches in length, 
the most common forms being from 3 to 7 inches. 

The spike is made up of a large number of one-flowered 
spikelets. The compactness of their arrangement on 
the rachis varies considerably. When compactly arranged, 
the spike appears full and rigid. When the spikelets are 
farther apart, it has a slender appearance. 

The appearance of timothy seed is unlike that of any 
other cultivated grass, and it is easily identified. This fact 
renders adulteration difficult. The seed after thrashing is 
usually inclosed in the flowering glume and palea, al- 
though much of it, sometimes as much as 50 per cent, is 
freed from the glume during the operation and appears 
naked. The legal weight per bushel in the United States 
is 45 pounds. 

184. Distribution and adaptation. — Timothy may be 
'found growing throughout the temperate regions of the 
world. As a cultivated grass, it is of considerable impor- 
tance in England and in Europe. In the United States 
it is extensively grown in that section of the country north 
of a line drawn from the southern boundary of Maryland, 
and east of the Missouri River. Within this section, 
known as the timothy belt, no other grass rivals it as a 
hay plant, and nowhere else in the world is it so well 
and so favorably known. Its importance in this section 
makes it the most important hay grass in the United States. 
New York produces the greatest amount of timothy hay, 
while Pennsylvania, Iowa, Ohio, and Indiana follow closely 
in its production. So important is timothy hay that, 
until recently, it has been the only hay on which there has 
been a market quotation. Much of the hay produced in 
this section is shipped to the large cities, to those within 



TIIS PERENNIAL GB ASSES 197 

and also those without the timothy belt, and it is the 
market hay in the cities in the eastern half of the United 
States. Timothy is also grown quite extensively in many 
of the mountain valleys of the far West, especially in Wash- 
ington and Oregon. Timothy grows best on moist clay or 
loam soils, and is not well adapted to loose or sandy soils. 
It does not grow well in the South, and a stand there 
rarely lasts over one year. 

185. Cultural methods. — There are several methods 
of seeding timothy in common practice. The most com- 
mon method is that of seeding it with wheat, either in the 
fall with winter wheat, or in the spring. When seeded 
in the fall, the seed may be spread either in front of or 
behind the drill hoes. Usually the spreading of the seed 
in front of the drill hoes gives the best results. However, 
if favorable weather prevails and soil conditions are good, 
seeding behind the drill hoes may give equally good 
results. Seeding in the fall with wheat gives the timothy 
an opportunity to become well established before winter, 
and usually a good stand is secured by following this prac- 
tice. If it is desired to grow mixed hay, that is, timothy 
and clover together, the clover may be seeded in the spring, 
early enough so that the seed will be covered by alternate 
freezing and thawing. Another method of seeding in 
common practice is that of seeding both timothy and 
clover in the spring. Usually the seed is mixed in the 
proportion desired and then sown together. When this 
is done, the seeding may be done early in the spring 
so that freezing and thawing will cover the seed, or it 
may be delayed until the ground is dry, and in that 
case the seed should be covered with a light harrow. 
Good results are obtained by either method. Some 
growers object to covering the seed with the harrow, con- 



198 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION- 

tending that the latter will injure the wheat. Experience 
and experiments, however, show that instead of injuring 
the wheat, harrowing often increases the yield a few 
bushels per acre. Timothy may be seeded alone or with 
clover in the spring with oats. Oats, however, on account 
of the dense shade produced by their broad leaves, do not 
provide as favorable conditions for the growth of timothy 
and clover as do wheat or rye. Timothy may also be 
seeded alone, that is, without a nurse crop. When seeded 
alone, the most favorable time is in late summer or early 
fall. With a well-prepared seed bed, seeding at this time 
usually gives an excellent stand, which may be expected 
to produce a good crop of hay the next year. When 
seeded with a nurse crop, either in the fall or in the spring, 
no hay may usually be expected until the next season. 
When seeded alone, 15 pounds of seed per acre is the usual 
application. Experiments carried on by several stations 
indicate that a heavier rate of seeding does not insure an 
increase in yield of hay. When seeded with clover, 8 or 
9 pounds of timothy with 7 or 8 pounds of red clover and 
2 pounds of alsike per acre make a desirable mixture. 

186. Cutting for hay. — The stage of growth at which 
timothy is cut for hay varies in different localities, and 
even among different farmers in the same locality. It 
has been found that the time of cutting influences, to a con- 
siderable extent, the amount and quality of the hay. At 
the Missouri Experiment Station timothy was cut at 
five different stages of growth. The stages at which the 
cutting was made were : (1) plant in full head ; (2) in full 
bloom ; (3) seeds formed, bloom shed ; (4) seeds in dough 
stage ; (5) seeds ripe. It was found that the time of 
cutting influenced the yield, the digestibility, and palata- 
bility of the hay. It also influenced to some extent the con- 



THE PERENNIAL GRASSES 



199 



venience of harvesting and the permanency of the stand. 
Results of the experiments indicate that the highest yield 
of hay of the best quality is obtained when the grass is 
cut between the time when it is in full bloom and the 
stage at which the seeds are just formed. While the later 
cuttings are more easily cured in the field, due to the fact 




Fig. 70. — Cutting timothy hay. 



that they contain much less water than the earlier cuttings, 
the hay is not of as good quality as the earlier cuttings. 
Late cutting is favorable for the storing up of nutrients 
in the tuber at the base of the culm, and therefore more 
favorable for a permanent stand. Timothy is not a good 
pasture grass. The sod does not stand tramping well, 
and close grazing materially lowers the" yield of succeeding 
crops. Sometimes timothy is grown for seed rather than 



200 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



for hay. When grown for seed, it should not be seeded 
so thickly as for hay, usually only nine or ten pounds per 
acre being used. The crop is cut with a grain binder or 
with a self -rake, and the bundles are either set up in shocks 
or hauled to the barn. The yield of seed per acre varies 




Fig. 71. — Plots of timothy at Cornell University, showing variation 

in manner of growth. 



from 3 to 20 bushels, the average probably being about 
10 bushels. After thrashing, the straw is of some value as 
feed, though it is greatly inferior to timothy hay when 
cut at the proper time. 

187. Improvement of timothy. — Much has been ac- 
complished by systematic selection in the improvement 
of the small grains, but it does not seem to have occurred 



THE PERENNIAL GRASSES 201 

to many growers that forage grasses may be improved 
by the same means. The Cornell Experiment Station is 
one of the few that has engaged in this work. The results 
of their experiments show that much is possible by selec- 
tion, and it will be only a short time probably until seed 
of heavy yielding strains or varieties of timothy may be 
purchased on the market. By selecting desirable plants 
and propagating them, the yield and quality of the grass 
has been greatly increased above that of the average. 

KENTUCKY BLUE-GRASS 

The name Kentucky blue-grass is given to this common 
and useful grass, not because it is a native of Kentucky, 
but because nowhere else does it grow so luxuriantly 
and nowhere else is it held in such high esteem. In some 
places it is called June-grass because it makes its best 
growth during this month. In England, where it is quite 
common, it is called smooth-stalked meadow-grass. In 
some places, too, it is called green-grass, while in other 
localities it is called simply blue-grass. 

188. Description. — Kentucky blue-grass, Poa pra- 
tensis, is a strong perennial. Unlike most grasses, it 
becomes more productive as the years go by, provided it 
is favored with good care. The roots of Kentucky blue- 
grass do not penetrate deeply into the soil and it is easily 
affected by drought. The plant is provided with numer- 
ous creeping underground root stalks, which give rise to 
new plants, and it is able thus to thicken up a thin stand. 
The underground root stalks grow so vigorously that other 
grasses, excepting the most persistent ones, are soon 
crowded out. A good blue-grass sod is firm and tough 
and stands tramping and grazing well. The culms are 
comparatively few in number and grow from a few inches 



202 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



to three and one-half feet in height, depending upon the 
soil. They are quite commonly from 15 to 24 inches high. 
The culms of blue-grass are round and smooth, and the 

smooth character gives to it the 
name of smooth-stalked meadow- 
grass, by which it is known in 
England. The leaves are smooth, 
narrow, and bright green in color. 
The culm leaves are few in num- 
ber and from 3 to 6 inches in 
length, while the basal leaves grow 
in abundance and are much longer 
than the culm leaves, usually from 
1 to 2J feet. The inflorescence is 
an open, spreading, branched 
panicle, varying from 3 to 9 inches 
in length. The spikelets are larger 
and fewer in number than those 
of redtop, and contain rom 3 to 
5 flowers. The panicle during 
certain periods of its growth is 
tinged with red, giving to it the 
appearance of redtop. The seeds 
remain inclosed in the glumes, and 
as they come from the thrasher 
contain a mixture of chaff and 
weigh but 14 pounds per bushel, 
which is the legal weight in most 
states. Well-cleaned seed may 
weigh as much as 25 pounds per 
bushel. The seed found on the market is usually very 
low in vitality, which is due in a large measure to the 
method of harvesting and drying the seed. 




Fig. 72. 



-Kentucky blue- 
grass. 



THE PERENNIAL GRASSES 203 

189. Distribution and adaptation. — Kentucky blue- 
grass is probably a native of Europe, and although no 
records are to be found, it was probably introduced into 
America many years ago. It is said that the early 
settlers of Virginia and Kentucky looked upon it as a 
dangerous weed, and prophesied that it would some day 
drive the farmers out of the country. How great would 
be the surprise of these same men, could they but see 
to-day the fine pasture it makes, and learn how highly 
we prize Kentucky blue-grass! While this grass may be 
found here and there over almost all of the United States, it 
is cultivated as a hay and pasture grass only in the timothy 
region, and in those states just south of this region. In 
the South it does not endure the hot weather and is soon 
killed out. Its distribution outside of the timothy region 
is confined largely to limestone soil. On a narrow strip 
of land running south of the Ohio River, through central 
Kentucky, and extending to the middle of Tennessee, blue- 
grass is found at its best. The famous blue-grass region of 
Kentucky is known far and wide for its famous pastures. 
In Virginia, too, fine blue-grass pastures are found in the 
fertile limestone valleys. Blue-grass is the basis of all 
permanent pastures and lawn mixtures throughout the 
corn belt states. It finds its greatest field of usefulness 
in that section of the country west of the New England 
States and east of the Missouri River. Here it holds 
the same position as a pasture grass that timothy does as a 
hay grass. Blue-grass grows best on clay or clay loam soil, 
and does not do well on loose, sandy soil. Being a shallow- 
rooted plant, it requires moist soils, but does not thrive 
in wet soil. It is easily affected by drought and fails to 
grow during dry weather. Blue-grass is sensitive to acid 
soils and does not grow well on them until this condition 



204 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

is corrected by the use of lime. It grows best on the Hme- 
stone soils of the corn belt states and in the blue-grass 
region of Kentucky, which is underlain with limestone. 

190. Uses of blue-grass. — As a hay grass, it cannot 
compare favorably with timothy, either in yield or palata- 
bility. The short stems and few culm leaves hold down 
the yield so that it is seldom that more than one-half ton of 
hay is secured per acre. The hay is dry and unpalatable, 
and animals do not relish it. Kentucky blue-grass is 
preeminently a pasture and lawn grass. As a pasture 
grass in the corn belt states, it has no rival. It furnishes a 
palatable and nutritious pasture, starts early in the spring, 
and grows late into the fall. It makes a dense, firm sod 
that stands pasturing well and becomes more dense and 
productive with age. There are, however, two serious 
objections to blue-grass as a pasture grass. It does not 
furnish pasture during the dry, hot part of the summer, 
and it requires several years to become well established. 
Its desirable qualities, however, so far outweigh its 
defects, that there is no danger of its losing favor. As a 
lawn grass in the blue-grass section it has no rival. It 
makes a beautiful, dense turf that improves with age and 
when supplied with water during the summer, retains its 
beautiful green color from early spring until late fall. 

In certain sections of the country, the seed crop is im- 
portant. Almost all of the seed used in the United States 
is harvested within a radius of 40 miles of Lexington, 
Kentucky. The seed is harvested either by hand or horse- 
dra^vn machines. The harvester most commonly used 
is a machine run by horses that combs or strips the spikelets 
from the panicle and collects them in a bag. The machines 
are wide and collect the seed from a strip 15 to 25 feet wide 
at one time. The stripping begins when the panicle turns 



THE PERENNIAL GRASSES 205 

yellow, which, in central Kentucky, is soon after the first 
of June. After the seed has been collected it is put into 
piles or long ricks to cure. The low vitality of much of 
the seed on the market is due to the heating of the seed 
in the curing process, sometimes reaching a very high 
temperature. Experiments have indicated that better 
methods of curing yield seed with a good vitality. In the 
purchase of blue-grass seed, it is important that the per- 
centage of germination be ascertained, else the purchaser 
may get a high proportion of seed that will not grow. 

191. Cultural methods. — When sowing blue-grass for 
pasture, it is seldom seeded alone, since it requires two or 
three years to make a dense sod. It is usually seeded in 
combination with other grasses and clovers, which will 
furnish pasture until the blue-grass becomes established, 
when it will crowd them out and replace them. In this 
way pasture may be had soon after seeding without waiting 
for the blue-grass to become established. When seeded 
alone, 40 pounds of seed per acre is considered a full seed- 
ing, although if the seed is of good vitality, half this amount 
is enough. When seeded with other grasses, a mixture 
of 10 pounds of blue-grass, 10 pounds of timothy, 3 
pounds of redtop, 2 pounds of meadow fescue, 3 pounds 
of alsike clover, and 2 pounds of white clover per acre 
makes a desirable combination. White clover grows well with 
blue-grass and is often seen with it in permanent pastures. 

When seeded alone, it is well to sow in the fall with a 
nurse crop, wheat or rye being desirable for this purpose. 
When seeded in combination with other grasses, the mixture 
may be sown in the fall, or the grass seed only may be 
applied at this time, and the clover added early in the 
spring. When a blue-grass pasture becomes thin, it may 
be renovated without plowing it up by disking and sowing 



206 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

a mixture of clover and blue-grass seed. It is usually 
advisable to apply barnyard manure or commercial 
fertilizers to the field before reseeding. The clover will 
furnish pasture for a few years, during which time the blue- 
grass will make rapid growth and thicken up the stand by 
means of its creeping root stalks. 

CANADA BLUE-GRASS 

192. Canada blue-grass, Poa compressa, is sometimes known 
as wire-grass, and flat-stalked meadow-grass. It is closely 
related to Kentucky blue-grass, is bluer in appearance, and in 
some localities goes by the name of bluegrass. It may be 
distinguished from Kentucky blue-grass by its flat stems, blue 
color, and closed panicle. The grass is distributed very gener- 
ally over the Kentucky blue-grass region, but is of importance only 
along the northern boundary of the United States, particularly 
in New York State. Canada blue-grass will grow under more 
adverse conditions of soil and climate than will its near relative, 
Kentucky blue-grass. It will grow well on acid soils, soils of a 
sandy nature, and those low in fertility. It is therefore useful 
in localities where Kentucky blue-grass does not thrive. As 
hay grass, it is highly prized where it is known. Live stock 
prefer it to timothy, but it does not yield nearly so well. It 
furnishes good pasture, but does not start so early in the spring 
nor does it grow so rapidly as Kentucky blue-grass. It is highly 
prized as a lawn grass, and makes a beautiful sward if kept 
closely mowed. 

REDTOP 

In mid-summer the panicle of this grass has a reddish 
purple color, from which it gets its common name of red- 
top. In Pennsylvania and the Southern States it is also 
known as Herd's grass, the term redtop being sometimes 
applied to some of the other members of the same genus 
with the characteristic reddish purple panicles. 

193. Description. — Redtop, Agrostis alba, is the most 
varied of any of the cultivated grasses. Some forms are 



THE PERENNIAL GRASSES 



207 



small and slender, while others grow strong stems, with 
coarse, broad leaves. The largest forms are the varieties 
used for hay or pasture. Redtop has a shallow root 
system, made up of many underground root stalks, which 
form a firm, dense sod. Be- 
cause of the numerous stolons, 
it is a valuable grass for bind- 
ing soil to prevent it from wash- 
ing. The culms vary from one 
to four feet in height, and are 
usually erect, though they are 
sometimes decumbent. The 
nodes of the culms take root 
when they come in contact with 
the ground. The leaves are not 
as numerous as those of timothy. 
The inflorescence is an open, 
much branched panicle, and the 
spikelets are small and contain 
but one flower. During the 
early stages of growth the pan- 
icle is contracted and green in 
color, but as the plant matures, 
the panicle expands and takes 
on a reddish purple color. Red- 
top bears a resemblance to blue- 
grass, but can be distinguished 
from it by the smaller and more numerous spikelets 
having only one flower, while blue-grass has 3 to 5 
flowers per spikelet. Blue-grass is an earlier grass and 
comes into full bloom about six weeks before redtop 
blooms. Redtop seed varies considerably in quality ; 
as it comes from the thrasher it contains much chaff and 




Fig. 73. — Redtop. 



208 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

weighs only about 12 pounds per bushel. Recleaned 
seed weighs about 35 pounds per bushel. 

194. Adaptation and distribution. — Redtop is probably 
more widely distributed than any other cultivated grass. 
It will grow in greatly varying conditions of soil and 
climate. It is hardy in the North and thrives in the warm 
climate of the Southern States. While redtop is grown in 
almost every state in the Union, it is of importance only in 
comparatively few places. It is well adapted to low, wet, 
or undrained soils, and will also grow on soils that are of 
acid reaction. It is well adapted, too, to heavy clays. 
In the timothy and blue-grass sections and also in New 
England, it is used in pasture and meadow mixtures. It is 
grown in the mountain valleys of the Western States 
where the soil is too wet for other grasses. In a few coun- 
ties of southeastern Illinois and adjacent counties across 
the river in Kentucky, it is an important crop. In this 
section it is grown for the seed. In the South, where it is 
known as Herd's grass, it is accorded much favor, since 
it is one of the few grasses that will remain green the year 
around. 

195. Uses. — As a hay grass, redtop is generally looked 
upon with disfavor, especially in the timothy region. 
It is, however, next to timothy the most important hay 
grass of this section. When hay is grown for the market, 
redtop is especially in disfavor, and a small amount mixed 
in with the timothy decreases the price of the hay. Chemi- 
cal analysis shows that redtop is equal if not better than 
timothy in feeding value. Redtop hay, however, lacks 
palatability, it deteriorates in quality if over-ripe, and 
does not as a general rule compare with timothy in yield. 
In the New England States, redtop is largely used in com- 
bination with other grasses for hay. It is slow to start 



TEE PERENNIAL GRASSES 209 

growth in the spring or after cutting, but it is very useful 
in mixture for seeding permanent pastures, since it will 
grow in places too wet or too acid for the other grasses 
of the mixture. For pasture it ranks near blue-grass in 
palatability, and live stock eat it quite readily. Where 
soils wash badly, redtop, because of its numerous creeping 
root stalks, is a valuable grass to bind the soil and prevent 
washing. When grown for seed it is a profitable crop, 
because it can be grown on soil that will not give a profit- 
able return from other crops. 

196. Cultural methods. — The seed of redtop varies 
more in quality and price per bushel than other grass seed. 
Usually one pound of well-recleaned seed is worth as much 
for seeding as four or five pounds of the uncleaned seed. 
When seeded alone, 15 pounds of well-cleaned seed is 
regarded as a full seeding. It may be seeded in the same 
way as described for timothy. In pastures or wood lots 
having low, wet areas, redtop may be useful to improve 
the herbage. The seed may be scattered over these 
areas in February and March and the freezing and thawing 
will cover the seed. 



CHAPTER XI 
OTHER PERENNIAL GRASSES 

ORCHARD-GRASS 

Orchard-grass derives its name from the fact that it 
grows well in the shade, and for this reason is commonly 
grown in orchards. In England it is known as cocksfoot 

from the resem- 
blance of the pan- 
icle to a cock's foot. 
197. Description. 
— Orchard-grass, 
Dadylis gloynerata, 
is a perennial with 
a strong tufted 
habit of growth. 
It has no creeping 
root stalks like red- 
top or blue-grass, 
but tillers are pro- 
duced from nodes 
of the culm just 
above the ground. 
The root system 
grows to a medium 
depth, not so deep 
as timothy, and 
not so shallow as 




Fig. 74. 



Orchard-grass in full bloom. 
210 



OTHER PERENNIAL GRASSES 211 

blue-grass. The culms are inclined to be coarse and vary 
from IJ to 3 feet in height. The leaves are abundant 
on the culm, but the blades are large and thick. The 
inflorescence is a one-sided spreading panicle with a spike- 
let arranged in dense clusters. The spikelets have from 
three to four flowers, and the seeds when they mature re- 
main within the glumes. The keel of the flowering glume 
extends into a short, slightly curved awn. The legal 
weight per bushel is 14 pounds, although when well cleaned 
a bushel may weigh as much as 22 pounds. 

198. Distribution and adaptation. — Orchard-grass is 
one of the commonest grasses in England and Europe. 
In the United States it has a wide distribution, but is of 
the most importance here in the states just south of the 
timothy region, especially in West Virginia, Virginia, 
Kentucky, and Missouri. Orchard-grass will grow on 
almost any type of soil, but grows most luxuriantly on 
fertile, well-drained soils. It will withstand severe winter 
cold, but is often injured by late spring frosts. 

199. Uses. — Orchard-grass is important as a hay 
grass only outside of the timothy region. Orchard-grass 
hay, according to analysis, is equal to timothy in feeding 
value, but unless it is cut at the proper stage of growth 
and well cured, the live stock will not eat it as readily. 
For the best quality of hay, the grass should be cut when 
in full bloom. After this time it rapidly becomes woody 
and deteriorates in palatability and feeding value. The 
quality of the hay depends also upon the thickness of 
seeding ; when seeded thinly, it is coarse and woody. 
Under favorable conditions it yields two cuttings of hay 
per year. It ripens at the same time red clover does and 
if they are seeded together, the mixture, if cut at the proper 
time, makes valuable hay. As a pasture grass, it is eaten 



212 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

by live stock almost as readily as timothy. It makes a 
desirable mixture with meadow fescue and white clover. 
It has to recommend it as a pasture grass the fact that it is 
one of the first grasses to start in the spring and grows late 
in the fall. It also grows well during the hot months of 
summer and quickly springs up after pasturing or cutting. 

In a few localities of West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, 
arid Indiana, it is grown for the seed. When grown for the 
seed, it is cut with the grain binder and handled much 
like a grain crop. The straw after thrashing has some 
feeding value, and the after growth either makes excellent 
fall pasture, or is cut for hay. The yield of seed per acre 
varies from 8 to 25 bushels, the average being about 15 
bushels. The price received by the grower varies from 
one to two dollars per bushel. 

200. Cultural methods. — Orchard-grass in many sec- 
tions of the country is sown broadcast on winter wheat in 
January or February, the freezing and thawing covering 
the seed. Sometimes it is seeded in the spring with oats. 
When seeded alone, the usual practice is to apply the seed 
to a well-prepared seed bed in late summer or early fall. 
Usually no crop can be expected the first season, either 
when seeded with a grain crop or alone. The rate of seed- 
ing will depend on the purpose for which the crop is 
grown. When a seed crop is desired, 14 or 15 pounds per 
acre are used, and if hay or pasture is the object, the 
rate is increased to twice as much as for seed. 

BROME-GRASS 

While brome-grass is the most common name applied 
to this grass, it is also known, and its seed is sometimes 
sold, under the names of smooth brome, awnless brome, 
Hungarian brome, and Russian brome-grass. Brome- 



OTHER PERENNIAL GRASSES 



213 



grass is a native of Europe, and was introduced into the 
United States about 1882 by the CaUfornia Experiment 
Station. Its usefuhiess does not seem to have been 
appreciated in this country until it received favorable 
comment in Canadian agricultural publications, and it was 
from Canada that our seedsmen 
got their first supply of seed. 

201. Description. — The genus 
Bromus, to which brome-grass, 
Bromus inermis, belongs, con- 
tains many useful grasses, but 
also some of doubtful reputation. 
Chess or cheat, the common weed 
pest of the wheat field, is a near 
relative of the useful brome-grass. 
There are several other members 
of the genus Bromus that are use- 
ful as forage grasses, but they are 
of minor importance as compared 
with brome-grass. 

Brome-grass is a deep-rooted, 
strongly stoloniferous plant. 
The creeping root stalks branch 
out in all directions, producing 
at the nodes a bud which usually 
produces another plant, and in 
this way the plants quickly form ^^^- 75. — Brome-grass. 
a thick, firm sod. Because of its deep-rooting character, 
the plant is able to withstand drought to a remark- 
able degree. The culms of brome-grass are, when com- 
pared with those of other tame grasses, rather short and 
thick. The leaves, are broad, thick, and abundant and 
grow largely from the nodes near the ground. The 




214 FIELD CBOP PRODUCTION 

flowers are carried in a wide-spreading panicle from 4 to 
8 inches in length, made of numerous spikelets, which are 
large and contain from 6 to 10 flowers each. The seeds 
of brome-grass, when thrashed, are retained in the flower- 
ing glume and palea. The legal weight per bushel for the 
seed in the United States is 14 pounds. 

202. Distribution and adaptation. — Brome-grass is a 
native of the north temperate regions of Europe and Asia, 
where it has been grown for many years. In the United 
States it does not do well south of the latitude of St. Louis, 
except in high altitudes. It withstands cold well and is 
hardy far up in Canada. Brome-grass is noted for its 
ability to withstand drought, but does not do well in 
extremely dry climates. It is therefore a valuable grass 
for the semi-arid regions of the West, and for the cool 
climate of the Great Plains area of the Northwest and in 
Canada. While it will grow on a variety of soils, it is not 
well suited to sandy or loose soils, and does best on moist 
loams. Brome-grass has not yet become a successful 
competitor of timothy in the timothy belt. 

203. Usefulness. — Brome-grass is classed among the 
best hay grasses of Europe. In the United States it is 
given high rank, but because only small quantities are 
found on the market, it does not rival timothy. The 
hay is palatable and is readily eaten by all kinds of live 
stock. Brome-grass will produce a fine crop of hay for 
two or three years, after which time it becomes sod-bound 
and sends up few culms, but continues to produce many 
short leaves from the nodes near the ground, and thus 
furnishes excellent pasture. Unlike almost all other 
grasses, it furnishes an abundance of pasture during the 
dry summer months, starting early in the spring and 
growing until late in the fall. It recovers quickly after 



OTHER PERENNIAL GRASSES 215 

cutting or grazing and because of the thick, firm sod which 
it makes, stands tramping well. In palatability it is 
surpassed only by blue-grass. 

204. Cultural methods. — Brome-grass is usually seeded 
in the spring with a light seeding of one of the grain crops. 
Twenty pounds of well-cleaned seed per acre is the usual 
rate of seeding. It makes but little growth the first year, 
but usually will furnish considerable pasture during the 
latter part of the season. The seeding may be done in late 
summer or early fall, in which case a considerable growth 
may be expected the next year. When the crop is grown 
for seed, it should not be cut until fully mature, for if cut 
prematurely the vitality is impaired. Formerly much of 
the seed used in this country was imported from Europe. 
Within recent years, however, considerable quantities 
of it have been produced in the Great Plains area of the 
United States. The yield of seed varies from 200 to 400 
pounds per acre. After thrashing, the straw may be used 
for feeding, and if not badly weathered, it is relished by 
most classes of live stock. Because of the many branch- 
ing stolons, this grass is sometimes difficult to eradicate. 
This objection, however, may be largely overcome if the 
land is plowed deeply and planted to a crop that requires 
considerable tillage during the growing season. 

THE FESCUES 

There are several species of the genus Festuca that are 
of agricultural importance. The most common form is 
meadow fescue, Festuca elatior. Another variety, which 
grows taller than the meadow form, is called tall fescue. 

205. Description. — Meadow fescue is a perennial 
having long, fibrous roots which grow deep into the ground. 
It is not stoloniferous, neither does it grow in prominent 




216 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

tufts or bunches like orchard-grass. The culms are rather 
short, when compared with those of other grasses, varying 
from 1| to 3 feet in height. In the tall fescue, the culms 
are usually from 3 to 6 inches taller than those of meadow 
fescue, growing under the same conditions. 
The leaves of both species have a distinguish- 
ing shiny appearance, and are an intensely 
dark green in color. Not many leaves are 
produced on the culms, but basal leaves grow 
in great abundance. When the plant is young, 
the panicle is closed, but as it reaches matur- 
ity it becomes more spreading and slightly 
drooping. The spikelets are fairly large and 
contain several flowers. 

206. Adaptation and distribution. — Meadow 
fescue is of great importance only in three or 
four counties in eastern Kansas and western 
Missouri, although it is grown more or less in 
meadow and pasture mixtures in the North 
Central and New England States. In some 
of the valleys in Washington and Oregon, 
tall fescue attains considerable importance. 
Meadow fescue will grow on a variety of 
Fig." 76. — soils, but is especially adapted to those of the 
Meadow fes- stiff clay type. 

^"^" 207. Uses. — While this grass is used both 

for meadows and for pastures, it is probably better adapted 
for pasture than for hay. It makes a compact, leafy sod, 
which stands tramping well. It grows early in the spring 
and late in the fall. In palatability it rivals Kentucky blue- 
grass. It is grown principally for the seed in certain parts 
of Kansas and Missouri, where it ranks next in importance 
to the small grain crops. This section supplies the demand 






OTHER PERENNIAL GRASSES 217 

of the United States for meadow fescue seed; and when more 
is grown than is needed here, the surplus is often exported. 
When grown for the seed, it is cut with the grain binder 
and bound in sheaths. The production of the seed varies 
from 3 to 25 bushels per acre, the average being about 
10 or 12. The weight per bushel varies from 12 pounds in 
seed that is not well cleaned, to as much as 25 pounds in 
well-cleaned seed. 

208. Cultural methods. — Meadow fescue seed is com- 
monly low in vitality, the standard of germination being 
75 per cent, although it frequently goes much lower than 
this. When seeded alone, from 30 to 40 pounds per acre 
is used, the amount depending upon the cleanness of the 
seed and upon its vitality. It is not often sown alone, 
except when grown for seed. More often it is seeded 
with other grasses for hay or pasture, and when seeded 
this way, from 2 to 10 pounds per acre is used, depending 
upon the kind of mixture desired. 

BERMUDA-GRASS 

Bermuda-grass was introduced into this country in 
the early part of the nineteenth century. In all prob- 
ability it did not come from the Bermuda Islands, as its 
name would indicate, there being evidence that it was 
shipped in with some foreign merchandise through the 
West Indies. 

209. Description. — Bermuda-grass, Capriola dadylon, 
is a strong perennial with a dense stoloniferous root system, 
composed of both above and below ground stolons. It 
therefore quickly forms a thick, firm sod. The culms, 
which are usually short, produce only a few leaves, but 
basal leaves grow in abundance. The inflorescence is 
made up of from three to five one-sided spikes, from 1 to 



218 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

3 inches long. The spikelets are one-flowered, and seldom 
mature seed in the United States, excepting in the extreme 
southern parts where favorable conditions exist. 

210. Distribution and adaptation. — Bermuda-grass is 
a tropical or warm-country plant and may be found grow- 
ing throughout the warm regions of the world. In the 
United States its field of usefulness is confined to the cotton 
growing states and those adjacent to them. It grows best 
during the hot months in summer, and will stand extreme 
periods of drought. It grows on almost all kinds of soil, 
and has special adaptation to light, sandy soils. Bermuda- 
grass does not love the shade, but grows well in the waste 
lands, if kept free from shrubs and weeds. 

211. Uses. — While many grasses grow well in the 
South, none can compare in importance and usefulness 
in this section with Bermuda-grass. On good soils and 
under favorable climatic conditions, Bermuda-grass grows 
large enough to be cut for hay. Under such conditions 
it can be cut three or four times during the season, and 
while the yield of hay per cutting is not large, the amount 
obtained from all of the cuttings together makes it a 
profitable hay crop. The hay made from it is of excellent 
quality, equal to, if not better than timothy in palata- 
bility and feeding value. As a pasture grass it takes first 
rank. Bermuda-grass is useful also as a lawn grass, but 
since it does not grow well in the shade, it is not desirable 
for shaded lawns or parks. 

212. Cultural methods. — Almost all of the seed used 
in the United States is imported from Australia, and it is 
very expensive and unreliable in quality. It is fortunate, 
therefore, for the farmers of the South, that the grass can 
be propagated by planting pieces of the sod containing a 
piece of the underground root stalks. Several methods of 



OTHER PERENNIAL GRASSES 219 

planting the bits of sod are in common practice. They 
may be spread in the growing corn and covered at the last 
cultivation, or the field may be plowed and marked off 
with furrows two feet apart and the sod dropped in the 
furrow and covered. Sometimes the bits of sod are 
dropped in the furrow as the ground is being plowed. 
Probably the most interesting method is that of having a 
barefoot boy carrying the pieces of sod in a basket, pass 
over the field soon after a rain, dropping the sod and 
pressing it into the soil with his foot. So vigorously do 
the root stalks grow out in all directions, that a dense sod 
is formed within a short time. 

JOHNSON-GRASS 

213. Johnson-grass, Sorghum halepense, was introduced 
into the United States about 75 years ago and rapidly spread 
over the Southern States. It is known in some localities as 
Means grass. The plant is strongly stoloniferous, growing from 
4 to 7 feet in height, bearing long, broad, flat leaves. The 
panicle resembles that of the millets, bearing the spikelets in 
pairs. The seeds, when thrashed, are naked and resemble those 
of the sorghums in appearance. The weight per bushel is 45 
pounds. This grass is common in the Southern States, where in 
many places it is regarded as a weed, because of the difficulty of 
eradicating it. As a hay grass, it is one of the best in the South. 
It yields more than any other ; in favorable localities three full 
cuttings can be made per year. The quality of the hay is excel- 
lent, being preferred by live stock to timothy. It does not sell 
readily on the market, because the seeds carried with the hay 
cause it to be introduced into localities where it is considered a 
serious pest. As a pasture grass, it is very productive, but does 
not stand tramping well and is not so good for this purpose as is 
Bermuda-grass. 

THE RYE GRASSES 

214. Perennial rye grass, Loliu?n perenne, is a native of 
Europe and is sometimes called English rye grass. It is peren- 



220 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

nial in duration and grows somewhat in tufts. It grows luxuri- 
antly in fertile and moist soils, but on drj^ soils it is of little value. 
In England it is one of the most important grasses, entering into 
mixtures for both pastures and meadows. In the United States 
it has never been of much importance, excepting in a few places 
in the Pacific Coast States. It makes a good quality of hay and 
is relished by live stock. 

215. Italian rye grass, Lolium italicum, is a biennial, although 
in some places it lives but one year. It is of little importance in 
the United States excepting in the Pacific Coast States, where it 
is frequently found in meadows. On account of its duration, 
it is not adapted for permanent pastures. It is a rapid grower 
and compared with the perennial rye grass has coarser, taller 
stems and is lighter in color. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE ANNUAL GRASSES FOR GRAIN AND 

FORAGE 

THE MILLETS 

The term '^ millet" as employed in general usage 
includes a number of species, all of which are members of 
the grass family, and may be grown either for grain or 
for forage. In Japan, China, India, and other parts of 
Asia, they are grown largely for the grain, and therefore 
belong to the cereals. In the United States, however, 
they are generally grown for forage, and are most often 
classed with the forage crops. The millets, while includ- 
ing several distinct species, have in common the fact that 
they are all annuals, similar in their habits of growth and 
cultural requirements. The millets commonly grown in 
America may be divided into three principal groups, 
namely, the fox-tail millets, the broom-corn millets, and 
the barnyard millets. 

216. The fox-tail millets, Chcetochloa italica. — This 
group of millets gets its name from the resemblance of 
its members to the common fox-tail weed from which they 
are supposed to have been derived. Members of this 
group are the most commonly grown, and are also the most 
important of the millets in the United States. They are 
all erect, hot weather plants, with a spike-like head, which 
distinguishes them from the other groups. They are 

221 



222 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



rather drought resistant, growing best on fertile soils, 
although a fair yield may be expected on relatively poor 
soils. There are three important varieties of fox-tail 

millets, namely, common, 
German, and Hungarian. 

217. Common millet. — 
This variety was the first 
to come into general use in 
this country and is still 
probably the one most com- 
monly grown. Several slen- 
der stems, which grow from 
2 to 4 feet in height, are pro- 
duced by each plant. The 
leaves are narrow and dark 
green in color, the spike 
grows almost erect, is com- 
pact with numerous bristly 
hairs, and the seeds are 
somewhat larger than those 
of Hungarian or German 
millets and are yellow in 
color. Common millet is the 
earliest of the three varie- 
ties, and is adapted to the 
Northern States, although it 
will do well elsewhere. It is 
better adapted to medium 
fertile soils than the German 
millet, although larger yields are obtained under more 
favorable conditions. It is almost always grown for hay 
and under favorable conditions will yield from 2 to 2\ tons 
per acre. 




Fig. 77. 



Common and Siberian 
millet. 



THE ANNUAL GRASSES 



223 



218. Hungarian millet. — This millet is sometimes 
known as, and the seed is 6ften sold under the name of, 
Hungarian grass. Hungarian millet was introduced into 
the United States soon after the introduction of common 
millet, and it is now one of the important varieties, being 
grown almost exclusively for hay. It differs from common 
millet in having a shorter and more erect spike and the 
seeds are either yellow or 




purple. Like the common 
millet, it produces several 
culms from a single seed. 
It requires a little longer 
season and is not quite so 
drought resistant as the 
common millet, although 
under favorable condi- 
tions it may be expected 
to yield a little more hay. 
The hay, however, is not 
quite so good in quality 
as that made from com- 
mon millet. 

219. German millet. — 
This millet is a large, 
rank growing variety, with 
short, broad leaves, and a 

nodding spike. The seeds are yellow and are smaller than 
those of the common and Hungarian millets, and although 
it sometimes produces tillers, usually but one stem grows 
from each seed. German millet is a late variety, requiring 
a longer growing season than the common and Hungarian 
millets. It is not adapted to poor or medium fertile 
soils, but for good yields must be sown in fertile, moist 



Fig. 78 . — German millet. 



224 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



soils. It yields more per acre than the common or Hun- 
garian, but the hay is coarser and is of not quite so good 
quality, although when it is properly made, live stock 
eat it quite readily. 

220. The broom-corn millets. — Broom-corn millet, 
Panicum miliaceum, is so named because of the similarity 
of the head, which is in the form of a panicle, to that of 

broom-corn. The broom- 
corn millets are grown ex- 
tensively in southern Eu- 
rope and in many parts of 
Asia, but they have never 
been extensively grown in 
the United States, and are 
not nearly so important 
here as the fox-tail varieties. 
Some varieties, however, are 
grown rather extensively in 
the Northwest, where, on 
account of the short season 
and dry climate, they pro- 
vide a good substitute for 
corn. The varieties of 
broom-corn millets vary 
more or less in their habits 
of growth, but the group as 
a whole, when compared with fox-tails, do not produce as 
much forage as the latter, but produce more seed. The 
stems are large and often hollow, and the leaves are covered 
with hair, giving a coarse, rather unpalatable forage. 
The seeds are large and variously colored, the colors of 
red, white, and yellow being especially prominent. They 
are valuable plants for many sections of the Northwest, 




Fig. 79. — Broom-corn millet. 



THE ANNUAL GB ASSES 



225 



since they produce a good yield of grain in a short, dry 
season. Sometimes as many as 60 bushels are produced 
per acre. When grown for the grain, millets are handled 
in much the same way as the small 
cereal crops. 

221. The barnyard millets, Pani- 
cum crus-galli. — The barnyard mil- 
lets is the name given to a group 
of plants, most of which are varie- 
ties of the single species known as 
barnyard grass, which is a common 
weed, growing wild in moist, rich 
soils throughout the United States. 
Varieties of barnyard grass are 
grown for both grain and forage. 
In Japan they have received the 
most favor, and are there an im- 
portant crop, being grown for the 
seed which is used for human food. 
In the United States, the barnyard 
millets have not been grown to any 
considerable extent. Recently, how- 
ever, the Massachusetts Station im- 
ported from Japan a variety known 
as Japanese millet, which, when 
tested at that station, gave a higher 
yield of forage than any of the 
other varieties of millets. The seed 
of this variety is put upon the market under the name 
of " billion dollar grass " and extensively advertised as a 
great forage grass. Experience has shown, however, 
that while the barnyard millets ordinarily give a heavy 
yield of forage, the quality of the hay is quite inferior to 




Fig. 



80. — B amy ard 
millet. 



226 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

that made from the fox-tail millets. The plant grows 
rather tall and has a more or less open head, free from 
bristles. It does not withstand drought well, requires a 
fertile moist soil, and is better adapted for use in the silo 
or as a soiling crop than for making hay. 

222. Pearl millet, Pennisetum spicatum. — While classed 
as a millet, this plant more closely resembles sorghum 
or corn than do the millets. It grows from 5 to 12 feet 
in height, the spike is from 6 to 15 inches long, very 
compact and almost cylindrical, resembling the '^ cat-tail" 
flag, which grows wild in swampy places (in fact, it is 
sometimes called cat-tail millet), and the leaves closely 
resemble those of sorghum. Pearl millet requires a rich, 
moist soil, and a long, hot growing season for its best 
growth. Under these conditions it suckers abundantly 
and produces a large yield of forage, which may be cut 
several times during the season. Pearl millet is impor- 
tant only in the South. 

223. Uses of millets. — Millets have been grown for 
centuries in India, China, and Japan, where they are used 
as human food. Indeed, it is said that millet enters into 
the dietary of over one-third of the inhabitants of the 
globe. When used for food, it is usually boiled or parched, 
and is eaten alone or with milk and sugar. It is considered 
a nutritious and digestible food. In the United States, 
millet is used only as a feed for domestic animals. It is 
most commonly used as hay, and compares favorably in 
digestibility and nutritive value with timothy. It may be 
fed to cattle, sheep, and horses, usually in combination 
with other forage, since, if fed alone, it sometimes pro- 
duces injurious effects on the kidneys of the animals. 
It is sometimes used as a soiling crop, especially in sec- 
tions where the silo has not come into general use. Under 



THE ANNUAL GRASSES 227 

favorable conditions it may be cut for this purpose in from 
40 to 50 days from the date of seeding. The common and 
Hungarian varieties are the ones best adapted both for hay 
and for soiUng. Millet may also be used for pasture, either 
alone or in combination with other annuals, like cowpeas 
and soy beans. Massachusetts Station has recommended 
it for the silo, and their experience shows that it can be 
preserved in excellent condition in the silo. When grown 
for its seed, which is used for feeding domestic animals, 
the yield varies from 15 to 60 bushels per acre. Millet 
is not usually grown in the regular rotation except in the 
Northwest. It finds its greatest usefulness as a sub- 
stitute for corn and hay crops when they fail. It is then 
found valuable as an emergency hay crop. 

224. Cultural methods. — Millets grow best on rich, 
fertile soils, but certain varieties, as the common and 
Hungarian millets, may produce good j^ields on the soils 
of medium fertility. They are rapid growers, but, on 
account of their small seeds, require a well-prepared seed 
bed. Seeding should be delayed until the soil is well 
warmed up, usually until just after corn planting. Seed 
may either be sown with a drill or sown broadcast and 
harrowed in. For most varieties 3 pecks per acre is con- 
sidered a full seeding for hay, a thinner rate producing 
coarser stems which do not make as good a quality of 
hay. Japanese millet is seeded at the rate of 2 pecks per 
acre. The quality of the hay depends largely upon the 
time of cutting. It rapidly deteriorates after the seeds 
have reached the dough stage, hay cut after that time 
becoming less palatable and less digestible. The best 
quality of hay may be had if the crop is cut between the 
time that the heads begin to appear and before they reach 
full bloom. The hay is cut and harvested in much the 



228 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

same way as timothy, although a little more difficulty 
may be experienced in curing it. 

THE SORGHUMS 

Cultivated sorghums have been derived from a wild 
grass, Sorghum halepense, which may be found growing 
in tropical and semi-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemi- 
sphere. Sometime in the distant past varieties of this 
grass were found to be useful to man as food. Selection 
of the best individuals for seed through all of the succeed- 
ing generations has greatly changed the progeny from the 
original form of the grass, and increased their value. The 
sorghums of to-day, therefore, like many of our other 
cultivated crops, owe their present form and great useful- 
ness to long years of selection. How long ago and by 
what people sorghums were first used is not known. 
Mention of them in the ancient records of the people 
living in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, 
and in India and Egypt, indicate that they are among the 
oldest of cultivated plants. 

225. General description. — While there are three 
main classes of sorghums, and many varieties of each 
class, they all have certain characters in common. The 
sorghums have a strong, fibrous root system and are 
known as plants with great feeding capacity and a general 
ability to withstand drought, some varieties being espe- 
cially adapted to sections with little rainfall. The culms 
are tall, varying in height from four to twelve feet. In 
appearance the plants are much like corn, and like those 
of corn, the culms are solid. The leaves are long, but not 
so wide as those of corn, and they have a glossier appear- 
ance. The inflorescence, or head, is carried at the top 
of the stem, and varies in shape from a rather compact 



THE ANNUAL GH ASSES 229 

Spike-like panicle, as in the kafirs and some other grain 
sorghums, to a loose, long branched panicle, as in the 
broom-corns. The grains of the sorghums differ from those 
of the cereals in that they are rounder. They vary in 
size and shape with the varieties, but in general they are 
much smaller than corn kernels, and usually red or white 
in color. 

226. Classes of sorghums. — Sorghums may be divided 
into three main classes, namely, saccharine, nonsaccharine, 
and the broom-corns. 

THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS OR SORGO 

227. Description and varieties. — The saccharine or 
sweet sorghums are so called because of the high percent- 
age of sugar contained in the juices of the stems, which 
distinguishes them from the other two groups. When 
the word " sorghum " alone is used, it usually refers to 
the members of this group, which are sometimes known 
locally as " cane." The sweet sorghums are used both 
for forage and for the making of sirup or molasses. They 
grow from 5 to 10 or more feet in height and have numer- 
ous, rather broad leaves. The head varies in size and 
shape from an open panicle, in appearance much like a 
corn tassel, as in Amber sorgo, to a compact spike-like 
panicle, as in Sumac sorgo. Their soil requirements are 
similar to those of corn, although they may be grown 
successfully on soils too poor to grow a good crop of corn. 
The sweet sorghums are grown quite extensively both for 
forage and for sirup in the South and Southwest. They 
do not hold an important place as a forage crop in the 
North, although within the past few years they have 
been more generally grown. Many farmers, however, grow 
a small area for the production of sirup for table use. 



230 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



228. There are several varieties of sweet sorgos, which 
may be divided into four groups, namely, Amber, Orange, 
Sumac, and Gooseneck. The basis for this division is the 
form of the head and the color and covering of the seed. 
The members of the Amber group are earlier than the other 
three, and are usually grown in the Northern States both 
for sirup and for forage. The Ambers have loose, open 
panicles, and the seeds are covered with black or deep red 
glumes, giving to the seed and head a black appearance. 
The Orange sorgos are from two to three weeks later in 
maturing, and are distinguished from them by a medium 
compact head and the yellow seeds projecting beyond the 
dark red-black glumes. The Sumac or Redtop sorghums 
have small red seeds projecting beyond the small glumes, 
giving the head, which is short and compact, a red appear- 
ance. They mature about the same time as the Orange 
sorghums. The Gooseneck sorghums are so called be- 
cause the stem that supports the head is often curved, 
permitting the latter to hang downward. The stalks of 
the sorghums of this group are rather large and full of 
sweet juice, which, when boiled down or evaporated, 
forms sorghum molasses. 

229. Cultural methods. — Sorghum plants grow slowly 
at first, and for this reason they require a well-prepared 
seed bed that is free from weeds. Unless the weeds are 
destroyed before the crop is seeded, they are likely to 
crowd and shade the young sorghum plants, with dis- 
astrous results to the latter. Sorghums require warm 
growing weather and are usually not planted until a week 
or two after corn may be planted. When grown for 
sirup, the seeds may be drilled in rows, three or three 
and one-half feet apart. The amount of seed used should 
be such as to give twice or three times as many plants per 



THE ANNUAL GRASSES 



231 



acre as are desired of corn plants to the acre, which result 
may be had by using from 10 to 20 pounds of seed. When 
grown for hay, the seed may either be closely sown with a 
drill, which requires about one bushel of seed per acre, 
or it may be drilled in rows as it is for sirup, which re- 
quires only about one-third as much seed. If weeds are 
plentiful, it is best to cultivate during the early part of the 




Fig, 81. — Cutting sorghum — one of the best forage crops for the 

Middle West. 



growing season, although good crops may sometimes be 
grown without cultivation. 

230. Harvesting for sirup. — Harvesting for sirup 
should be done when the seeds are in the late milk stage, 
since at this time the stems contain the best quality of 
juice. The heads and leaves should be removed from 
the stems before the latter are passed through the mill, 
since they impart a disagreeable taste to the sirup. They 



232 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

may be removed before the plants are cut by cutting the 
heads and stripping the leaves from the standing stalks, 
or they may be removed after cutting. The juice is then 
pressed from the stalks by running them between heavy 
rollers. The juice is collected and reduced to the desired 
consistency by evaporation over steam. The yield of 
sirup varies from 70 to 300 gallons per acre, the average 
being about 125 gallons. 

231. Harvesting for forage. — When grown for forage, 
the crop may either be cut and fed green, or made into 
hay. When used for soiling, it may be cut as needed 
from the time the heads appear, until it is ripe. When 
cut for hay, more palatable forage and greater feeding 
value per acre will be secured if the crop is cut when the 
grains are in the late milk stage. The feeding value of the 
hay decreases from this time until maturity. The best 
quality of hay is secured when the hay is cured in small 
cocks or windrows, which practice prevents the leaves 
from becoming sunburned. Considerable time is required 
for curing sorghum hay on account of the large amount 
of juice in the stems. Sometimes the crop may best be 
cut with a corn binder and the bundles set up in shocks 
to cure. This method facilitates handling and also pro- 
motes excellent conditions for curing while in the shock. 
Sorghum hay is of good quality and is relished by almost 
all kinds of stock. The yield varies from 2 to 10 tons 
per acre. 

THE NONSACCHARINE SORGHUMS 

232. Description. — The common nonsaccharine sor- 
ghums may usually be distinguished from the sweet sor- 
ghums by their shorter and more stocky stems, which 
usually contain little sap, although in some varieties the 
stems are rather juicy but scarcely sweet. The non- 



THE ANNUAL GRASSES 233 

saccharine sorghums, unhke the sorgos, are grown princi- 
pally for grain, and by many agronomists are grouped with 
the cereals ; but because they are so closely related to the 
forage and sirup sorghums, and because the cultural 
methods of the two classes are so similar, they are dis- 
cussed together in this chapter. The nonsaccharine or 
grain sorghums are extensively grown in India, China, 
and Africa. In the United States they are grown rather 
extensively in the southern half of the Great Plains area, 
which may be defined as the area lying between the Rocky 
Mountains and a line drawn from Central Nebraska to 
the Mexican border. This area will include western 
Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and the portions of Colo- 
rado and New Mexico that lie east of the Rocky Mountains. 
The grain sorghums are particularly well adapted to this 
area, which is noted for its low rainfall, which averages 
about 20 inches annually, almost all of which falls between 
the months of April and September. In this section of the 
Great Plains area, the grain sorghums hold a place of 
importance similar to that held by corn in the corn belt 
states. They are able to grow and produce a profitable 
crop of grain under conditions of rainfall that prohibit the 
growing of corn or other grain crops. The total area 
devoted to the growing of grain sorghums is approximately 
as much as that devoted to the growing of rye, but the 
area devoted to the former is not widely scattered over 
many states as is the culture of rye. The grain sorghums 
may be divided into two groups, namely, the kafirs and 
the milos. 

233. Kafir. — The kafirs or kafir " corns " differ from 
the sweet sorghums in that their stems are lower, short- 
jointed, and stocky. They grow usually from five to eight 
feet in height, having broader leaves than the sweet 



234 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

sorghums, and a more cylindrical head that always stands 
erect. While the stalks do not usually contain much 
juice, in some varieties they are quite juicy. Usually 
the seeds are white, pink, or red, the varieties of kafir 
being known as white kafir, red kafir, and the like. 

234. Milo. — Milo or milo " maize " resembles kafir 
in general appearance, but differs from it in that the 
plants are less leafy, the heads are shorter and more 
rounded, and the seeds are much larger, slightly flattened, 
and usually yellowish brown in color. The milos are 
earlier, more drought-evasive, and have lower water re- 
quirements than the kafirs, and it is said that they will 
produce profitable yields in sections having an annual 
rainfall of only 10 to 15 inches. The milos are somewhat 
earlier maturing than the kafirs, but the forage which 
they provide is less palatable on account of their fewer, 
smaller leaves and more pithy stems. 

235. Cultural methods. — Kafirs and milos are planted 
much as corn is, usually in rows SJ feet with plants 4 to 
10 inches apart in the row. About 3 to 4 pounds of seed 
are required to plant an acre. Sometimes the planting is 
done with a lister, which gives the best results on certain 
soils and under certain seasonal conditions. The time of 
planting kafirs and milos is usually a little later than that 
of corn, since the former are warm weather plants and do 
not make much growth until the soil is well warmed up. 
Harvesting is usually done with a corn binder, in which 
case the plants are bound into bundles and set up in shocks 
like corn. Sometimes only the heads are harvested, 
which may be done either by cutting them off by hand with 
a knife, or in the case of kafir by means of an attachment to 
a wagon known as a '' header," which removes the heads 
and conveys them to the wagon. The heads may be fed 



THE ANNUAL GRASSES 235 

without thrashing, or the grain may be thrashed from 
them by means of a thrasher. When cut with the binder, 
they may be thrashed, as are the small grains, or fed in the 
bundle. Almost all of the grain is used in the feeding of 




Fig, 82. — Heading kafii- in Texas. 

live stock, and it has a feeding value equal to rather more 
than 90 per cent that of corn. The stalks are about equal 
to corn stover in feeding value, and may be used as rough- 
age. 

THE BROOMCORNS 

236. Description. — The broomcorns differ from the 
other sorghums principally in the shape of the head, which 
is an umbelliform panicle made up of many long, tough 
branches. After the immature seeds have been removed, 
the panicle is called the '' brush," and when several pani- 
cles are neatly tied with wire on the end of a long stick, 
they become the broom which is indispensable to the house- 
wife. Broomcorns are of two general types, namely, 
standard and dwarf. Standard broomcorn is a tall plant 
with brush from 20 to 28 inches in length. Dwarf broom- 



236 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



corn, as its name indicates, does not grow so tall, usually 
only from 3J to 6 feet, and the brush varies in length from 
12 to 22 inches. Brush from the standard varieties is 

used in the making of 
large house or stable 
brooms, while that 
from the dwarf varie- 
ties is used for the 
making of whisk 
brooms and other 
small brooms and 
brushes. 

237. Adaptation 
and importance. — 
Broomcorn may be 
grown on any soil 
that will produce a 
good crop of corn. 
Extremely fertile soils, 
however, produce a 
coarse brush not de- 
sirable for the best 
brooms. Light, sandy 
soils are well adapted 
to growing the dwarf 
varieties. The cli- 
matic adaptations of 
broomcorn are similar 
to those of the other 
sorghums, but localities in which frequent rains occur at 
the time of harvest are not well adapted to this crop, 
because rain at this time injures the quality of the brush. 
Oklahoma, Illinois, Kansas, and Texas are the states 




Fig. 83. — Dwarf and standard broomcorn. 



THE ANNUAL GRASSES 237 

leading in the production of broomcorn, in 1909 the 
production of these states being over 90 per cent of 
the entire broomcorn crop of the United States. The 
yield of brush per acre varies greatly, from 500 to 800 
pounds of the standard and from 200 to 400 pounds of 
the dwarf varieties being considered good yields. The 
price varies from year to year with the supply. In 
years of large production the price goes down, while in 
years of small production the price is high. In 1909, a 
year of partial crop failure, the price reached $200 per 
ton, while in other years, of overproduction, the price has 
sometimes fallen as low as $25 or $30 per ton. The 
average price for the standard type is probably from $80 
to $100 per ton, while that of the dwarf is often higher. 

238. Cultural methods. — Standard varieties are 
planted in rows from 3J to 4 feet apart, with the plants 
from 3 to 5 inches apart in the rows. The rows for dwarf 
varieties may be made 3 to 3J feet apart, with the plants 
from 2 to 4 inches apart in the rows. Broomcorn should 
not be planted near other sorghums, if seed is to be saved 
from the field, since it readily mixes with the other sor- 
ghums. The seed is usually planted just after corn plant- 
ing, since it requires the soil to be well warmed up before 
it will grow readily. The cultivation during the early 
stages of growth is similar to that of corn. 

239. Harvesting. — For the best quality of brush, the 
harvesting should be done at the time when the flowers 
are in full bloom. The heads from the standard varieties 
may be more easily removed if the plants are bent down 
or '' tabled." The heads may then be removed with a 
sharp knife, and laid on the table formed by the bent-over 
stalks, for partial curing. The dwarf varieties need not 
be tabled, and the heads are usually pulled out. The 



238 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

heads, after cutting or pulling, are sorted, the crooked or 
coarse strawed heads being laid aside to use in the making 
of cheaper brooms. The immature seeds and glumes are 
then removed from the heads by a combing device or 
thrasher, after which the brush is dried or cured in the 
shed, to prevent bleaching. After curing, the brush is 
pressed into bales of 400 to 500 pounds, and in this form 
is placed on the market. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE LEGUMES IN GENERAL 

The Leguminosse family is one of the most interesting 
of the great group of flowering plants. The family is a 
very large one, containing over 10,000 species, which have 
been grouped into 487 genera. Members of this family 
may be found growing in all parts of the world where 
flowering plants exist. They are to be found in the hottest 
parts of the tropics and in the cold climates of the North. 
They vary in size from the tiny plants that grow unnoticed 
by the wayside, to the giant trees of the forest. The most 
prominent trees that belong to this family are the locust, 
mahogany, and Kentucky coffee tree. About one-fourth 
of the members of the Leguminosse family are woody 
plants, most of which grow in the tropics. The remainder 
are herbaceous and are more widely spread over the world. 
Botanists have divided the members of this family into 
three sub-families, namely, Caesalpinese, Mimosese, and 
Papilionaceae. The species included in the first two 
groups are almost entirely tropical and hold little of 
importance for the agriculturalist ; the Papilionacese, 
however, includes some of the most important and useful 
plants that engage the attention of the farmer. 

240. Description. — The Papilionacese, or pea family, 
as it is sometimes called, usually regarded not as a fam- 
ily, but as a sub-family of the Leguminosse, is so named 
because of the resemblance of the flowers of this group 

239 



240 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

of plants to a butterfly, the Latin name of which is 
papilio. The plants of this sub-family are divided into 
several genera, about a dozen of which contain the im- 
portant agricultural species. In the older use of the term 
'* legume " it included all of the members of the Legumi- 
nosse, but it is now frequently used in agricultural litera- 
ture as including only the cultivated members of Papil- 
ionaceae. While the members of Papilionacese vary 
greatly in size, shape of their parts, and in their manner 
of growth, they have several features in common that 
distinguish them from the grasses and other families 
containing agricultural plants. Unlike the grasses, they 
have a tap root which varies in depth of growth and man- 
ner of branching. In some species, as in the white clover, 
the stoloniferous habit is more or less strongly developed, 
while in others, as the pea or bean, no stolons are present. 
The leaves consist of three or more leaflets carried on a 
leaf -stalk or petiole with stipules or leafy outgrowths at 
its base, the size and shape of the stipules being a feature of 
importance for the identification of many species. As in 
the grasses, the leaves are arranged alternately and spirally 
on the stem and branches. 

241. The flowers are one of the characteristic features 
of the Papilionacese, and, as was pointed out, bear a 
fancied resemblance to a butterfly. The flowers are 
made up of calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. The corolla 
is made up of five petals which are unequal in size. The 
largest and most conspicuous one is called the standard. 
The two that grow out laterally, one from each side, are 
at more or less right angles to the standard, and are 
known as the wings. The other two are more or less 
coherent along one margin and form a boat-shaped struc- 
ture called the " keel," in which the stamens and pistil 



LEGUMES IN GENERAL 



241 



are inclosed. There are usually ten stamens, nine of 
which are grown together a considerable part of their 
length, forming a tube with a split along one side which is 
filled by the tenth stamen. Inclosed within the stamen 
tube is the ovary, which contains from one to many 
ovules. The flowers may arise singly, as in the cowpea. 




Fig. 84. — Flowers of alfalfa. 



or they may be distributed along a stem, forming a raceme, 
as in vetch, or from the end of a branch in a whorl, form- 
ing an umbel, as in red clover, or they may be arranged 
along a branch in a head-like cluster or spike, as in the 
crimson clover. 

The fruit is a legume or a pod, which, when mature, 
usually splits open along both edges. From the form of 
the fruit the family Leguminosae gets its name. 

Another way in which the legumes are markedly dif- 



242 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

ferent from the grasses is in the structure of the seed. 
The seeds of the grasses have a relatively small embryo, 
and a large endosperm, while those of the legumes have a 
very large embryo, which completely fills the seed coat. 
It is due to the absence of the endosperm and to the large 
proportion of embryo, which contains a high percentage 
of nitrogen, that the legumes are so highly prized for 
their nitrogenous feeding value. 

242. Pollination. — Unlike most members of the grass 
family in which the pollen is spread by the wind, the flowers 





Fig. 85. — Legume flower. Fig. 86. — Cross section. 

of the legumes are so constructed that they require the 
services of certain insects to carry the pollen for them. 
The following quotation from Percival tells how, with 
their conspicuous flowers, they attract the insects, and 
in return for the nectar given them in payment for their 
visit, they unwittingly extract from them a friendly 
service. " The flowers of the Papilionacese are all 
specially adapted for insect pollination. The ' standard ' 
acts as a conspicuous attractive banner. The ' wings ' 
and ' keel ' petals are often interlocked near their bases 
in such a manner that when an insect of sufficient weight 
alights on the ' wings,' the latter are pressed downwards 



LEGUMES IN GENERAL 243 

and these in turn depress the ' keel ' petals ; the stamens, 
style, and stigma are by this movement forced out at the 
apex of the ' keel,' and the pollen is brought into contact 
with the underneath part of the insect's body. The in- 
sect visiting other flowers brings the pollen on its body into 
contact with the stigma of the flower, which, on account 
of its length and position, is generally forced out first from 
the apex of the ' keel ' ; cross pollination is thus effected. 

'' Some plants, such as the garden and field pea, sweet 
pea, the vetches and trefoil, while undoubtedly possessing 
flowers specially adapted for insect pollination, are ca- 
pable of self-pollination, and are fertile and able to produce 
seeds when insects are excluded. Others, such as the 
red, white, and crimson clovers and the broad bean, are 
more or less sterile when insects are prevented from 
visiting the flowers." 

243. Much controversy has arisen regarding the im- 
portance of insects in the pollination of the clovers, and 
their influence on the seed crop. Several experiment 
stations have conducted tests to determine whether or 
not insects are responsible for the clover seed crop. The 
test consists in protecting small areas of clover by frames 
covered with wire screen. In some of the cages are 
placed insects of various kinds, while in others no insects 
are permitted to visit the flowers. The report on the 
following page of a test conducted on red clover by the 
North Dakota Station shows the importance of insects. 

The results show that the bumble-bees were responsible 
for about 95 per cent of the seed formed in the protected 
cages. While heads selected growing in the fields showed 
a larger percentage of seeds per head, it was pointed out 
that the bumble-bees in the cages, being confined, were 
not under normal conditions : 



244 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



Treatment 



Protected (no insects) 
Hand-rubbed . . . . 

Field 

Miscellaneous insects 

(flies, moths, small bees) 

Bumble-bees (5 per cage) . 



No. OF 

Heads 


Flowers 
PER Head 


Seeds per 
Head 


14 


103.5 


5.9 


3 


111. 


2.6 


10 


134. 


83.6 


70 


93.5 


2.2 


68 


92.5 


43.5 



Percentage 
OF Seed-pro- 
ducing 
Flowers per 
Head 



5.7 

2.3 

62.4 

2.4 
47. 



Some farmers contend that there are not enough bumble- 
bees during any one season to bring about pollination in 
all of the flowers that produce seeds. Dr. Hopkins, in 
reply to this argument, says that he has observed a bumble- 
bee going through the motion of putting its bill into a 
clover bloom and withdrawing it, thirty-four times per 
minute, operating during this time upon seven heads. 
It is possible, as is indicated in the experiment above 
quoted, that insects other than bumble-bees may bring 
about some pollination, and it is also probable that self- 
pollination is effected in some cases. Scientists generally 
agree that the bumble-bee is largely responsible for the 
pollination of the clovers, and that their number in a 
given season has some close correlation with the yield of 
clover seed obtained. 

Recently there has been placed on the market a pollinat- 
ing machine, which, it is asserted, when run over a clover 
field in bloom, will so rub the clover heads as to cause 
self-pollination. The North Dakota Station, in the ex- 
periment reported above, found that the rubbing of the 
heads did not produce pollination. Experience with 



LEGUMES IN GENERAL 245 

the machines seems to indicate that they are of Httle 
service in the polUnation of clover. 

244. Relation to soil fertility. — The great favor now 
accorded the legumes as field crops is not due to a 
recent recognition of their importance in maintaining 
soil fertility, for many centuries ago Roman writers on 
agricultural topics attested to their soil-enriching value. 
In more recent times, in the first half of the eighteenth 
century, Jethro Tull, an Englishman, wrote a treatise on 
agriculture, in which he called attention to the increased 
yields obtained from grain crops on soils that had pre- 
viously grown legumes. While it was early known that 
the legumes possessed some soil enriching virtue not 
possessed by the non-leguminous crops, the reason for 
it w^as a matter of no little speculation. 

245. It was thought by many that the peculiar value of 
the legumes was due to the fact that they possessed roots 
that penetrated deeply into the subsoil and thus were 
able to secure much of their nourishment from a depth 
beyond the reach of other crops. A part of this plant 
food was thought to be stored in the roots and stubble 
near the surface, later to become available to succeeding 
crops. Liebig, a German chemist, held the opinion that 
plants received their nitrogen and carbon from the air, 
and that the clovers, on account of their broad leaves, were 
able to take up more nitrogen than the other crops. This 
theory, however, was not long accepted as explaining the 
matter, for Boussingault, in France, in 1851, and Laws and 
Gilbert, in England, in 1857, demonstrated, by a series 
of experiments, that the free nitrogen of the air was not 
available to the legumes. In 1883 Atwater, at the Con- 
necticut Experiment Station, grew a number of kinds of 
plants in pots, analyzing the soil before planting, and then 



246 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

analyzing the plant, together with the soil, at the end of 
the experiment. He found that, while in most cases there 
was no gain in nitrogen, in some there was an increase of 
as much as 50 per cent. In every case where there was 
a gain in nitrogen, it was in a pot where a legume had 
grown. Three years later, 1886, Hellriegel, a German 
scientist, solved the perplexing problem. By a series of 
pot tests with legumes, he found that in sterile soil there 
was no gain in nitrogen, the plants growing for only a 
short time before they withered and died. On the other 
hand, in those pots to which a small quantity of water, 
leached from a soil that had previously grown the legume 
successfully, was added at the beginning of the experiment, 
the plants grew vigorously and there was an increase in 
the nitrogen content above that which was contained in 
the seed. Upon examination it was found that the plant 
showing a gain in nitrogen invariably possessed tubercles 
or nodules on the roots, while none were to be found on 
those that showed no gain in nitrogen. Hellriegel there- 
fore advanced the theory that the bacteria in the nodules 
have a direct relation to the taking up of free nitrogen by 
the plant, which has since been established by numerous 
experiments. Hellriegel, however, was not the first to 
observe the nodules on the roots of legumes, for in 1687 
Malpighi, an Italian, wrote about them, calling them 
galls. For many years the nodules were thought to be 
the result of disease on the roots. Later, however, they 
were supposed by some to be enlargements of the roots in 
which reserve plant food was stored. In 1866 a Russian 
botanist discovered that the nodules were filled with 
bacteria. Beijerink was the first to isolate the bacteria 
and grow them in pure culture on artificial media. He 
named them Bacillus radicicola. 



LEGUMES IN GENERAL 247 

It is very interesting to know that while the soil-enrich- 
ing value of the legumes was known soon after the dawn 
of the Christian era, it has taken almost 1900 years to 
discover to what this peculiar virtue is due. 

246. Bacteria in relation to legumes. — The exact 
relation that exists between the bacteria in the nodules 
and the host plant is not definitely known. Present 
information on this subject, however, shows that the 
plant and the bacteria enter into a partnership, the result 
of which is mutual benefit. This relationship is called 
symbiosis. The bacteria which are in the soil enter the 
plant root through the root hair and work their way 
further into the root, which, because of their presence, 
makes an abnormal growth, forming a nodule. When 
once in the root, the bacteria rapidly increase in numbers 
by division, and as they increase the nodule enlarges. 
The mutual benefit of this partnership is derived from 
barter, in which the bacteria trade nitrogen to the plant, 
in return for all of the other elements necessary to their 
growth. The advantage of this partnership is to be found 
in the fact that the plant is unable to use the free nitrogen 
of the air, while the bacteria draw it in large amounts 
from this source and use it to build up their own structure, 
and when they die the nitrogen from their decomposed 
bodies becomes available to the plant. It seems that the 
greater percentage of the bacteria are not long lived, but 
soon die, supplying the plant with this necessary element 
of plant food. Support for this belief is to be found in the 
fact that the nodules are smaller, softer, and nearly empty 
of bacteria at the end of the growing season. However, 
not all of them die. Some few remain alive, and as the 
roots decay, find their way back into the soil until another 
plant comes forth with which to form a new partnership. 



248 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

247. Bacteria in relation to different legumes. — Since 
the bacteria may enter any of the root hairs, there is no 
uniformity in the arrangement of the nodules on the roots. 
There are, however, characteristic shapes of nodules for 
the various species of legumes. This is due to the fact 
that each species has a slightly different kind of root 
development, and, when penetrated by bacteria, they 
produce distinguishing types of nodules. It may be due 
also in part to the fact that the same kinds of bacteria do 
not work on all kinds of leguminous plants, but that each 
species enters into partnership with a special variety of 
bacteria. Thus we have the red clover variety of bac- 
teria, the soy bean variety, etc. The bacteria that form 
the nodules on the roots of red clover will not grow on 
the roots of the soy bean, and vice versa. Sometimes, 
however, one variety of bacteria may form nodules on 
two or more species of legumes ; thus the same bacteria 
will grow equally well on the roots of alfalfa, sweet clover, 
and bur clover. It is probable that the various kinds of 
leguminous bacteria are not distinct species, but varieties 
of Bacillus radicicola. 

248. Adaptation and distribution of bacteria. — Cer- 
tain conditions of the soil seem to retard the growth, and 
in some cases completely prevent the activities of the 
leguminous bacteria. The different varieties of bacteria 
of course have widely differing adaptations, but almost 
all varieties are sensitive to acid soils. While the variety 
that grows on the roots of alsike clover may grow in acid 
soils, they grow much better in soils well supplied with 
lime. The variety that grows on the roots of alfalfa and 
almost all other cultivated legumes is almost dormant 
in acid soils. Neither do they thrive in wet soils, and 
frequently drainage is necessary to secure their services 



LEGUMES IN GENERAL 



249 



for many leguminous crops. Under certain conditions 
the partnership between the plant and the bacteria, even 
though the latter are present, is not perfected. When 
the soil contains nitrogen in large amounts, the plant 
draws its supply from the soil, and the bacteria lose many 
of their activities and put forth little effort to penetrate 
the plant root. It is not usually desirable, therefore, to 
use nitrogenous fertilizers in connection with leguminous 




Fig. 87. — Applying lime to the land. 



crops. Sometimes, however, when the soil is especially 
deficient in this element, a light application of nitrate 
of soda is beneficial in starting the plants so that they may 
make sufficient growth for the forming of symbiotic re- 
lations with the bacteria. 

The bacteria are distributed over the country in various 
ways. The most important agencies are wind, water, and 
the transportation of hay and seeds. The diminutive 
size of the bacteria makes possible their wide distribution 
by the wind in connection with small particles of soil, 
leaves, and other vegetation. The water also carries 
them long distances in the time of high water. The ship- 



250 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



ment, from one place to another, of hay and seeds to 
which the bacteria may chng, is also an important agency 
in their distribution. 

249. Inoculation. — In sections of the country where a 
legume has been grown for many years, the bacteria that 
work upon its roots may usually be found in almost all 
soils. Thus, when red clover has been grown for years 

in a community, no 
difficulty is usually ex- 
perienced from a lack 
of the proper variety 
of bacteria. Some- 
times, however, the 
bacteria of certain 
crops are not generally 
distributed, especially 
in sections of the 
country where the 
legume is a new crop. 
Thus the variety that 
forms the nodules upon 
the roots of alfalfa is 
not generally distributed in all parts of the country. When 
they are not present, if the best results from the crop are 
to be secured, they must be supplied artificially. While 
the crop may sometimes be grown without the aid of the 
bacteria, it is not usually desirable to do so, because the 
plants then must draw upon the nitrogen supply of the 
soil, and, like non-leguminous plants, they then become 
soil exhausters instead of soil builders. Supplying the 
bacteria artificially is called inoculation. 

250. Methods of inoculation. — The general methods 
employed in inoculation are : by applying prepared cul- 




FiG. 88. 



Nodules on the roots of soy 
beans. 



LEGUMES IN GENERAL 251 

tures, by sowing a small quantity of seed with other 
crops, and by adding to the field a small quantity of soil 
containing the bacteria. 

The first method is that of securing from the United 
States Department of Agriculture, the State Experiment 
Station, or from a commercial firm, pure cultures of the 
bacteria, which, when put into suitable growing media, 
multiply very rapidly The solution containing the bac- 
teria, after a sufficient number have been produced, may 
be applied to the seed, which is sown in the usual way, 
after drying. It may also be used in sprinkling a small 
quantity of soil, which is then spread over the field and 
harrowed in. 

The second method has been practiced successfully by 
many farmers, especially in inoculating for alfalfa. This 
method consists in sowing a small quantity of seed on the 
field two or three years before it is seeded to the permanent 
crop. Sometimes two or three pounds of alfalfa seed are 
mixed with the red clover seed and sowed with it. A 
small amount of seed may be sown with the oats in the 
spring. Some bacteria are carried to the soil with the 
seed, and here and there over the field there will be a few 
plants that will become inoculated, and after a time the 
soil of the entire field will become inoculated. 

251. The third method is more generally employed, 
and is the one that is usually recommended. This method 
consists in getting soil from a field that has previously 
grown the crop successfully and spreading it over the 
field to be inoculated. Thus the bacteria will be intro- 
duced with the soil, and they will be present to begin 
their work on the plant roots as soon as the latter are 
large enough. In getting the soil from an old field, one 
should be sure that it contains the desirable bacteria. 



252 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

If a plant is carefully dug out and the roots examined, 
the presence of the nodules will insure the presence of 
the bacteria. 

The amount of soil to apply will depend upon the ease 
of getting it. If the soil is close at hand, a liberal appli- 
cation should be made, but if it is necessary to transport 
it some distance, a smaller amount, carefully spread over 
the field, will usually introduce a sufficient number of 
bacteria to insure inoculation. From 200 to 800 pounds 
per acre may be used, the amount depending upon the 
ease of procuring it. The soil should be taken from the 
first four or five inches of the surface soil, and spread over 
the new field late in the afternoon, or on a cloudy day. 
Direct sunlight is a strong bactericide, and if the soil is 
spread over the field in direct sunlight, many of the bac- 
teria may be killed. The soil should be harrowed 
immediately after the application. The grower should 
exercise care in getting the soil, as fungous and bacterial 
diseases, or weed seeds, may be introduced at the same 
time as the desirable bacteria. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE CLOVERS 

Probably no other group of forage plants is so well and 
so favorably known throughout a considerable part of 
the country as are the clovers. They are to be found in 
meadows and pastures, in lawns and along the roadsides, 
where with their sweet smelling blossoms and oval leaves 
they are set forth in deep contrast to the odorless flowers 
and long narrow leaves of the grasses with which they 
are growing. The favor accorded them, however, is not 
due to their beauty alone, for they are among the most 
useful and valuable plants. The farmer probably thinks 
first of all of their value and perhaps not at all of their 
beauty. The clovers belong to the genus Trifolium of 
the Leguminosoe family. Often in common usage the 
term clovers includes other members of this family that 
do not belong to the genus Trifolium, such as alfalfa and 
the sweet clovers. The only true clovers, however, are 
members of this genus, and while alfalfa and sweet clover 
are closely related to them, they may not properly be 
classed as clovers. There are over 200 species of this 
genus found growing throughout the world, and more 
than 60 species are found in America. Of this number, 
however, only those of agricultural importance will be 
discussed in this chapter. 

253 



254 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



RED CLOVER 

252. History. — This " Red Plumed Knight/' as it has 
been dubbed by one of its admirers, is a native of Persia, 
and from there it spread through the greater part of 
Europe, where for many years it has been an important 
factor in the maintaining of a permanent system of ag- 
riculture. It was introduced into Pennsylvania, probably 
from Holland, almost 150 years ago. Since that time 
the area of its culture has gradually extended and now it 
holds a most important place in the esteem of the American 
farmer. While it is most commonly known as red clover, 
it is also known as broad-leafed clover, common clover, 
medium clover, and medium red clover. It is called 
medium clover or medium red clover to distinguish it 
from the mammoth clover, which it closely resembles. 

253. Description. — Red clover, Trifoliurn pratense, 
is the most commonly grown and is perhaps the most 
valuable species of the genus Trifolium. It has a large, 
well-developed root system, made up of a tap root, which 
may extend several feet into the ground, and numerous 
lateral branches which grow out from it a few inches below 
the surface of the ground. The tap root grows almost 
directly downward and undoubtedly is of great service to 
the plant in obtaining water from the deep subsoil in 
time of drought. Sometimes the tap root is broken off by 
the alternate freezing and thawing during a severe winter, 
and the plant, thus released from its anchorage, is pushed 
up out of the ground for some distance. This is known 
as heaving and is decidedly injurious to the plants, some- 
times destroying entire fields of them. When the clover 
plant is quite young, the crown, that is, the short stem 
and top of the tap root, may be quite a little distance 



THE CLOVERS 



255 



above the ground. To protect it from the sickle or from 
grazing animals, the tap root as if possessed with fore- 
thought contracts or shortens up, thus drawing the crown 
down into the soil. Like other legumes, red clover forms 
a partnership with a certain species of bacteria and they 
work together in . harmony. The nodules produced by 
the bacteria are at first 
almost spherical, but 
later they become pear- 
shaped. They are not 
so large as the nodules 
found on the roots of 
peas or beans, but they 
are more numerous. 

254. The main stem 
of the red clover plant 
is made up of many 
very short internodes, 
and seldom grows over 
an inch or two in 
height. From the 
nodes, however, many 
leaves grow out, and 
later branches grow 
out between them and 
the main stem. The 
number of branches produced varies with the conditions 
of growth, but usually from 6 to 18 are produced. From 
the nodes of the main branches other branches are pro- 
duced, which in turn give rise to still other branches, 
so that when full grown, a many branched, bushy plant 
results. The plants vary in height with conditions of 
growth, but usually they are from 15 inches to 2. feet 




Fig. 89. — Red clover. 



256 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

high. Some plants grow almost erect, while with others 
some or all of the branches may be decumbent at the 
base. 

255. The leaves are large and dark green in color, pos- 
sessing prominent V-shaped white markings. They are 
usually arranged in threes all of which grow out from the 
end of the petiole. The leaves and stems are covered 
with a fine hair or down, which is more abundant when 
the plants are young. At the end of each branch is carried 
the flowering head, usually ovoid or spherical in shape, 
from 1 to 2 inches in length and composed of from 75 to 
200 small red or pink flowers, closely crowded together. 

256. The seeds vary greatly in size and are yellow and 
purple in color. Red clover seed is not often adulterated, 
although weed seeds are frequently found in it. The 
standard of purity is 98 per cent and the germination 
from 85 to 90 per cent. The legal weight per bushel is 
60 pounds. Sometimes some of the seeds are so hard and 
the seed coat is so impervious that when planted they 
are not able to absorb the amount of moisture necessary 
for germination. Such seeds are called " hard seeds," 
and in newly harvested seed, in which they are the most 
abundant, they may sometimes amount to as much as 
40 or 50 per cent. The hard character is lost in time, and 
when the seeds are sown a year or two later, almost all 
of them will germinate. A germination test before sow- 
ing may enable the grower to avoid a poor stand from this 
trouble. 

257. Distribution. — Red clover is adapted to temper- 
ate climates and is grown throughout the temperate regions 
of Europe and parts of Asia. In the United States it may 
be found in almost all parts of the country, but as an 
important cultivated crop it is confined to the northeastern 



THE CLOVERS 



257 



part of the country, and in the western parts of the Pacific 
Coast States. It grows at its best in what is known as the 
northern corn belt states. Here it is usually grown in the 
rotation, either alone or in combination with timothy and 
other grasses. It is best adapted to well-drained loam 
soils, which are sometimes called corn soils. While it 




Fig. 90. — Effects of lime on growth of red clover. Plot at left 
received no lime ; the one at right received an application at the 
rate of 1000 pounds of quick lime per acre. 



may be grown on soils of all degrees of fertility, except the 
very poorest, it is not well adapted to clays, as are the 
grasses. Red clover cannot withstand severe cold nor 
extreme heat, and for that reason is not an important 
crop in Canada nor in the Southern States of the United 
States. Alfalfa is more drought-resistant and largely 
takes the place of red clover in the semi-arid regions of 



258 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

the West. Red clover will not grow in wet soils as will 
alsike, which is used as a substitute for it in undrained 
or lowland areas. Soils deficient in lime are not well 
adapted for the growing of red clover, and sometimes a 
stand cannot be obtained on such soils until they are 
treated with lime. 

258. Uses. — Red clover is one of the most valuable of 
forage crops and may be used for hay, pasture, or for 
feeding green from the field. As a hay plant it is es- 
pecially valuable on account of the high percentage of 
protein which it contains. It is excellent forage, there- 
fore, to feed in combination with low protein grain rations. 
It may also be used in combination with low protein 
forage, such as corn stover or timothy hay. As a pasture 
plant, it furnishes excellent grazing for all kinds of live 
stock. It is objectionable as a pasture for horses because 
of its tendency to produce slobbers when they are pas- 
tured upon it exclusively. It also produces bloating in 
cattle when they are not accustomed to it, but if they are 
allowed to eat of it but sparingly at first, little trouble 
of this sort may be expected. Clover does not stand 
tramping well, neither does it thrive after close cropping. 
As a pasture it is best used in combination with timothy or 
other grasses, which largely overcome the above objections 
to it. As a soiling crop, it yields fairly well, but it cannot 
compare in that respect with corn or sorghum, although 
it possesses greater feeding value than either of these two. 
After being cut for soiling purposes, new plants spring up 
and a second cutting may be made during the season. 

One of the reasons why red clover is regarded with such 
favor where it is grown is because of its value in maintain- 
ing the fertility of the soil. Being a legume, it is able to 
use nitrogen from the air ; and when it is plowed under or 



THE CLOVERS 259 

returned to the field in the form of manure, a considerable 
amount of this element, which may then be utilized in 
the growing of other crops, is added to the soil. It is 
especially valuable for this purpose because, being a 
biennial or a short-lived perennial, it is well adapted to 
a short rotation. 

259. Cultural methods. — Red clover is usually seeded 
with a nurse crop, the reason for this being that if seeded 
alone it cannot be expected to produce a full crop the first 
year. Thus the grower would lose the use of the land for 
the season. However, if it is seeded with a nurse crop, 
the clover makes its first year's growth along with the 
nurse crop without decreasing the yield of either of them. 
The choice of a nurse crop will depend largely upon the 
crops that are grown regularly in the rotation. Most 
often the clover is seeded with the small grain crop, which 
may be wheat, oats, rye, or barley, the choice depending 
upon the grower's rotation practice. When wheat enters 
the rotation, clover is usually seeded with it. When 
oats, rye, or barley replace wheat in the rotation, it is 
seeded with them. When seeded with wheat or rye, the 
clover may be applied either in the fall with the wheat, or 
it may be sown in the early spring. When seeded in the 
fall, the clover is usually spread by the seeding attachment 
in connection with the grain drill, which may be adjusted 
to scatter the seed either in front of or behind the drill 
hoes. When seeding in the fall, best results are usually 
obtained if the seeding is done early. At the Ohio and 
Indiana stations seedings made later than early September 
were usually unsuccessful. 

260. When seeding is delayed until spring, the seed 
may be applied with a hand seeder in late February or 
early March, in which case the alternate freezing and 



260 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

thawing of the ground will sufficiently cover it, or the 
seeding may be done later, when the soil is dry enough, 
and covered with a light harrow. If the latter method 
is followed, the seeding should not be delayed until too 
late in the spring, or else the wheat will become too large 
to permit of the proper covering of the clover seed. Some 
growers object to covering the seed with the harrow, 
contending that by this practice the wheat will be injured, 
but various experiments have proven that, instead of 
being injured, more frequently the yield is increased, due 
probably to the cultivation which assists in conserving 
moisture. When seeded with a spring grain like oats or 
spring barley, the application is made along with the 
grain as in the fall seeding with wheat. Rye is the most 
favorable nurse crop, because it does not shade the ground 
as much as wheat or oats, and it is less likely to lodge and 
smother the young clover plants later in the season. Oats 
produce more shade than either wheat or barley, and are 
not regarded as a favorable crop with which to sow clover. 
However, if a short-strawed early variety is grown, little 
trouble may be expected. 

261. Sometimes clover is sowed in the corn at the time 
of the last cultivation. The chances for a successful 
stand by this method are doubtful, unless the soil is in 
almost perfect physical condition and free from weeds, 
and unless the seeding is followed by frequent rains. On 
fertile soils in sections with a plentiful rainfall this method 
is quite successful. When seeded with a small grain 
crop, the clover may be pastured after the removal of 
the grain, during late summer and early fall, without 
injury to the crop which will make hay or pasture the 
following summer. Clover is sometimes seeded in com- 
bination with timothy or other grasses for hay or pasture. 



THE CLOVERS 261 

Usually the seed may be mixed in the desired proportions 
and applied together, as is the practice when clover is 
seeded with a nurse crop. Twelve pounds of seed per 
acre is considered a full seeding when the clover is seeded 
alone. When mixed with timothy, from 6 to 10 pounds 
of the clover seed may be mixed with the same amount of 
timothy. Sometimes it is desirable to add a few pounds 
of alsike or white clover seed, in which case the amount of 
red clover seed is reduced correspondingly. 

262. Making clover hay. — The proper time to cut for 
hay is when the plants are just past full bloom and a few 
of the blossoms have turned brown. If cutting is delayed 




Fig. 91. — Cutting clover hay that gave a yield of over 3| tons per acre. 

very long after this time, many of the leaves, which are 
easily broken off when the plant is ripe, will be lost and 
the quality of the hay thereby greatly injured. If pos- 
sible, the clover should be cut in the afternoon, since the 
plants then contain less water than they do in the morning, 
and a shorter time will be required for curing. Ordi- 
narily, when the hay is first cut, it contains from 65 to 80 
per cent of water, and before it may be stored in the stack 
or mow with safety, the moisture content should be 



262 



FIELD CHOP PRODUCTION 



reduced to 18 or 20 per cent. The curing of the hay is 
greatly faciUtated by the use of the tedder, which may be 
used the next morning after cutting as soon as the dew is 
off. The time required for the clover to cure will depend 
upon its maturity, upon the dryness of the ground under 
it, and upon the sun and air. Under favorable conditions 
it may be dried out sufficiently for storing in 20 to 24 
hours after cutting. If only a small acreage is grown, or 

if plenty of labor is at 
hand, the leaves may 
be better saved and a 
slightly better quality 
of hay may be secured 
if the hay is piled into 
small cocks, when in 
a semi-cured condi- 
tion, for a few days 
before storing. 

263. Cutting for 
seed. — Red clover is 
grown primarily for 
the seed in but few lo- 
calities. The seed is 
usually harvested from the second crop, that is, from the 
plants which spring up after the hay crop has been re- 
moved. This practice makes possible the harvesting of 
two crops, one for hay and one for seed, during the same 
season. Small amounts of seed are produced on many 
farms in the clover growing sections of the country, but 
the greater part of it is produced in Ohio, Michigan, 
Wisconsin, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, and Missouri. 
The yield of seed per acre varies greatly from year to 
year, depending much upon weather conditions and upon 




Fig. 92. 



Using the tedder on a heavy 
hay crop. 



THE CLOVERS 263 

whether or not certain insect enemies are present. The 
largest yields of seed are usually obtained when the hay 
crop is cut early. If plenty of rain to start the second 
growth follows the cutting, and then if dry weather pre- 
vails during the last period of growth, the production of 
seed is favored. If wet weather prevails throughout the 
growing season, the plants grow tall and rank, the heads 
mature little seed, and the second crop is quite likely to 
be more valuable for hay or pasture than for seed. Early 
cutting of the first crop is favorable to a large production 
of seed because in this case the seed of the second crop 
forms early and may thus escape the attack of the second 
brood of clover seed midge. When the first crop is har- 
vested for seed, it is best to clip or pasture the field during 
the fore part of the season in order to delay the blooming 
period until the bumble-bees are more plentiful and in 
order to avoid the attack of the first brood of the clover 
seed midge. Clover should be cut for seed when the 
heads have turned brown and the seeds are in the dough 
stage. A mower, with an attachment to the cutter bar 
for bunching, or a self-rake, may be used. After cutting, 
the clover may be piled up into small cocks or allowed to 
cure in the bunches for a week or ten days, after which it is 
ready to thrash. The straw remaining after the seed has 
been removed is of little value as feed. The yield varies 
from a peck to as much as 5 bushels per acre, 2 bushels 
being probably an average yield. The seed sells on the 
market for from 5 to 10 dollars per bushel, which when 
considered in connection with the value of the hay crop 
secured the same season, makes the return per acre very 
profitable. However, many farmers prefer to pasture the 
second crop of clover and buy their supply of seed on the 
market. 



264 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



MAMMOTH CLOVER 

264. y\.diVciTQ.oth.Q\owQx,Trifoliwnpratense vsir.perenne. — 
This clover is considered by almost all agronomists 
to be a variety of red clover. Some, however, give it the 
rank of a distinct species. Evidence of its being a variety 
of the red clover is to be found in the fact that it crosses 
with it quite readily, producing various intermediate 
forms. It is so like red clover in its appearance and man- 
ner of growth that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish 
one from the other, especially when individual plants are 
considered. In almost all cases it may be distinguished 
from red clover by its larger, ranker growth, and its more 
perennial character. Another way in which it differs 
from red clover is that it is from 3 to 4 weeks later in 
maturing and produces but one crop during the season. 
In other respects it is quite similar to red clover ; even 
the seeds have no visible difference, and they cannot be 
told apart. Mammoth clover is sometimes called big 
clover, perennial red clover, and sapling clover. 

265. Uses of mammoth clover. — Mammoth clover 
may be used for feeding live stock in the form of hay, 
pasture, or as a soiling crop. It is not generally highly 
regarded for hay because of its rank growth of large, 
coarse stems, which do not make so fine a quality of hay 
as red clover. However, if grown on rather poor soils, 
the quality of the hay may be as good as that of red clover, 
and being a more vigorous plant, the yield from it is 
greater. The cutting, however, should not be delayed 
after the plant is in full bloom if a good quality of hay is 
to be expected. Usually it produces little or no after 
growth, and is of little value for fall pasture. Mammoth 
clover is probably more often grown for green manure 



THE CLOVERS 265 

than for hay or pasture. As a soil improver, it has no 
equal in the corn belt states, since it produces a great vol- 
ume of stems and leaves, which, when plowed under, add 
large amounts of nitrogen and humus to the soil. Unlike 
red clover, mammoth clover seeds abundantly the first 
crop, and often a seed crop may be removed before plowing 
it under. 

266. Cultural methods. — Mammoth clover has adap- 
tations to soil and climate similar to those of red clover. 








Fig. 93. — Rolling down clover to be plowed under for green manure. 

It is, perhaps, somewhat better adapted to the poorer 
types of soil than red clover, which increases its impor- 
tance as a green manure crop, since it will grow well on 
those soils that most greatly need assistance. The method 
and rate of seeding is similar to that described for red 
clover. When grown for both seed and green manure, it 
is desirable to harvest the seed in such a manner as to 
remove as little of the plant as possible. This may be 



266 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

done by rolling down the plants with a heavy roller a few 
days before harvesting the seed. At this time the plants 
are nearly mature, and the main stems will not straighten 
up again, but in a few days the ends of the branches bear- 
ing the heads will turn upward, and they may then be cut 
off without removing much of the plants. The field may 
then be plowed and the clover turned under to fertilize 
the soil. Mammoth clover seeds abundantly, probably 
because it is less likely to insect ravages than red clover, 
and also because the bumblebees are more plentiful when 
it is in bloom. 

WHITE CLOVER 

White clover, Trifolium repens, is sometimes called 
Dutch clover or little Dutch clover, because of its promi- 
nence in the pastures of Holland. 

267. Description. — White clover is a low growing 
plant, perennial in habit and under favorable conditions 
living for many years, differing in these respects from both 
red clover and alsike. It has a shallow root system, usu- 
ally almost all of the roots being found in the first 8 or 9 
inches of soil. The stems do not grow erect, but lie along 
the ground, forming runners which root freely at each 
node. It therefore spreads rapidly and makes a firm 
turf, which makes it well adapted to pastures and lawns. 
The leaves and flowering heads grow on long, upright 
stalks which arise from the prostrate stems. The length 
of the leaf and flower stalk depends upon the conditions 
of growth. If grown alone, they do not grow as tall as 
if grown with grasses or clovers. This is due to the ten- 
deiicy of the plant to place its flowers and leaves high 
enough so that they will not be completely shaded by other 
plants. The length of the leaf and flower stalks varies 
from a few inches to a foot or more. The flowering head 



THE CLOVERS 



267 



is smaller than that of either red clover or alsike, and the 
corolla of the flowers is white in color during early growth, 
and turning to light brown as the plant matures. When 
favored with cool, moist weather the plant blooms through- 
out the growing season. Seed is produced abundantly 
and the plants, when grown for seed, yield 5 to 15 bushels 
per acre. The seeds are heart-shaped, similar to but 
smaller than those of alsike, and are yellow in color. The 
proportion of hard seeds is relatively high and sometimes 




Fig. 94. — A trailing stem of white clover. 

they may lie in the ground for several years before ger- 
minating. 

268. Adaptation and uses. — White clover is more 
universally distributed than any of the common clovers, 
and may be found throughout the temperate regions of 
the world. It is probably a native of Europe or Asia 
and has been introduced into the other countries, perhaps 
by the seeds being carried in with those of other legumes 
or grasses. The seeds are light and easily carried and are 
not usually digested when eaten by animals, which fact 
probably assists in the distribution. The creeping nature 



268 FLELD CROP PRODUCTION 

of its stems and its perennial character makes possible 
its rapid increase when once seeded, even though only a 
few seeds may be dropped at first. White clover is less 
sensitive to climate than red or alsike clover, and has a 
much wider distribution. It grows on almost all soils, 
but thrives best on moist, fertile, well-drained soils. It 
does not grow well on soils deficient in lime or extremely 
lacking in fertility. When white clover grows abundantly 
in fields or along the roadside, this fact is usually taken as 
an indication of a productive soil. White clover does 
not grow tall enough to be of value as hay. It finds its 
greatest usefulness in mixtures for permanent pastures 
and parks and lawns. It is well adapted for growing with 
blue grass, and together they make the finest of pasture 
and the most beautiful lawns in parks and yards. In the 
South it grows well with Bermuda grass, both plants re- 
maining green throughout the winter in the extreme South. 
269. White clover is found in almost all of the perma- 
nent pastures of England and Europe, where it is highly 
regarded. It is seldom seeded alone, except when grown 
for seed, but usually is seeded with other legumes and 
grasses. In eastern Wisconsin it is seeded with barley in 
the rotation and it is in this section that most of the seed 
is produced. Because of the small size of the seeds, and 
the tendency of the plant to spread by runners, the rate 
of seeding is comparatively light. When seeded in mix- 
tures for pastures, 2 pounds of seed per acre are sufficient 
for a good stand. For the seeding of lawns, the rate 
should be increased to 4 to 6 pounds per acre. No per- 
manent pasture in the blue grass sections is complete with- 
out the presence of white clover, and in almost all seed 
mixtures for permanent pastures, white clover may well 
be included. 



THE CLOVERS 



269 



ALSIKE CLOVER 

Alsike clover, Trifolium hyhridum, is a native of Europe 
and gets its name from the village of Syke or Alsike in 
Sweden. It is also sometimes called Swedish clover. 
Alsike clover was formerly thought to be a hybrid from 
the crossing of white 
and red clovers, but 
it is now known to be 
a distinct species. It 
was introduced into 
the United States 
many years ago, and 
it is now grown 
throughout the 
Northern States of 
this country except 
in the arid regions of 
the West, and in 
southern Canada. 

270. Description. 
— Alsike clover is 
more perennial in its 
character than red 
clover, sometimes living for 5 or 6 years. It resembles 
red clover in its manner of growth and white clover 
in the appearance of its leaves and blossom. Its root 
system is more fibrous than that of red clover, and it 
does not heave as badly. The roots are not as large 
and usually do not extend so deeply into the ground 
as those of red clover. The branches are more slender 
and, when grown on fertile soils, are inclined to be 
decumbent at the base. The nodes, coming in contact 







9M 







Fig. 



95. — Alsike clover. 

of branching. 



Note 



manner 



270 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



with the ground, take root, giving to it somewhat of a 
creeping habit. The leaves are smaller than those of red 
clover and neither the leaves or branches are covered with 
the hairy down as is the case with the latter. The 
flowering heads are smaller than those of red clover, and 
the flowers are pink or white in color, closely resembling 
those of white clover. The seeds are more or less heart- 




FiG. 96. — A side-delivery rake. 



shaped, are slightly larger than those of white and some- 
what smaller than those of red clover. They vary in 
color from yellow to green, the most common color being 
yellowish-green. The seed weighs about 90 pounds to 
the measured bushel, but on the market 60 pounds is 
regarded as a bushel. 

271. Adaptations. — Alsike clover is more hardy than 
red clover and may be grown in sections too cold for red 
clover to endure the winter, but it does not grow as far 



THE CLOVERS 



271 



south as the latter. It is adapted to much the same types 
of soil as red clover, although it is able to grow on soils 
too wet for the latter to thrive. Another way in which it 
differs from red clover is its ability to withstand a slightly 
acid condition of the soil. It is therefore better adapted 
than red clover to sections of the country having wet or 
acid soils. In many parts of the clover-growing region, 
the soils have become so deficient in lime that red clover 




Fig. 97. — Curing clover hay in the cock 



is no longer a sure crop, and it is being replaced in the 
rotation to some extent by alsike. While alsike is grown 
throughout the northern part of the United States, it is 
of the most importance in the tier of states just south of 
the Canadian line. 

272. Uses and cultural methods. — Alsike is not usually 
grown alone, except when grown for seed, but is most 
commonly seeded in combination with other clovers or 
grasses for hay or pasture. Because of its finer stems, 
alsike hay is of finer quality and is more easily cured than 
red clover hay, and because of the absence of the hairy 



272 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

down on the stems and leaves, is less dusty when cured. 
It does not yield as much per acre as does the red clover. 
Usually it is grown in small amounts with red clover, but 
replaces it when soils are acid or wet. It ripens well with 
timothy and makes with it a good quality of hay. Alsike 
makes but little second growth and furnishes but little 
pasture after the hay crop is cut unless favored with 
good growing weather. It is excellent for mixtures for tem- 
porary pastures, but is not so well adapted to permanent 
pastures as is white clover. The cultural methods are 
the same as those described for red clover, except in 
regard to the rate of seeding. When seeded alone, 10 
pounds per acre is regarded as a full seeding, and in mix- 
tures from 2 to 6 pounds are used. 

CRIMSON CLOVER 

Crimson clover, Trifolium incarnatum, is also known as 
Italian clover, German clover, French clover, scarlet 
clover, and carnation clover. It has been cultivated from 
early times in .southern France and northern Spain, and 
within the past century has become generally distributed 
in other parts of Europe. It was introduced into south- 
eastern Pennsylvania in the early part of the nineteenth 
century and has come into general cultivation only within 
the past two or three decades. 

273. Description. — Unlike the other commonly cul- 
tivated clovers, crimson clover is an annual, maturing 
seed within the year from the date of seeding. It has a 
strongly branched tap root which penetrates the ground 
under favorable conditions to a depth of three or four 
feet. The tap root gives off many secondary branches, 
which also extend some distance into the soil. The 
tubercles are formed on the roots during the early stages 



THE CLOVERS 



273 



of growth, and the plant is noted for the large amount of 
nitrogen gathered during its short life. The main stem, 
like that of red clover, does not grow very tall, but gives 
off numerous branches or stools, sometimes as many as 
100 being given off from a single plant. The stems or 
stools give off but few branches and vary from 1 to 3 feet 
in height, giving the plant a bushy appearance. The leaves 
and stems are covered with an abundance of fine hairs. 
The flowering head is car- 
ried at the apex of the 
branches, and, unlike those 
of red clover, they are 
some little distance above 
the topmost leaf. The 
flowering head is elongated 
or cone shaped, and from 
1 to 2 inches long. The 
flowers are usually scarlet 
or crimson in color, which 
gives to the plant its most 
common name. Certain 
varieties, although they 
are not commonly grown, have white or yellow flowers. 
The flowers at the base of the head open first and those 
at the apex are the last to bloom. The seeds are larger 
than those of the other clovers described in this chapter, 
and may be easily distinguished from them by their 
globular shape and yellow or straw color. 

274. Adaptation and distribution. — Crimson clover 
is a tender plant and does not thrive in latitudes having 
cold winters. It is easily killed by hard freezing, and for 
this reason cannot be generally gro^\^l excepting in places 
of mild winter. In the United States, it is gro\vn exten- 




FiG. 98. — A crimson clover plant. 



274 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

sively in the Atlantic Coast States as far noith as New 
Jersey. In the northern corn belt states, it seldom with- 
stands the winters, and is of little importance. It grows 
well on almost all types of soils, but thrives best on the 
loams. Crimson clover will grow on soils of a very sandy 
nature, but sometimes it is necessary to add mineral 
fertilizers to this type of soil to secure a good crop. Crim- 
son clover, like red clover, does not grow well on wet soils ; 
but it is less sensitive to a deficiency of lime, growing well 
on soils that turn litmus paper red. 

275. Uses of crimson clover. — Crimson clover is 
used to some extent for hay in the states along the Atlantic 
coast, and it is said to make an excellent quality of hay 
when properly cut and cured. According to chemical 
analysis, it has about the same feeding value as red clover. 
The hay, however, is of coarser quality and is not so pala- 
table as that of red clover, although many farmers prefer 
it to the latter. Its palatability and feeding value is in- 
fluenced to a considerable extent by the time of cutting. If 
allowed to stand too long, the stems become woody and the 
calyx surrounding the seed pod becomes stiff and sharp, 
which makes it objectionable for feeding. Sometimes hair 
balls are formed from the hair of stems and leaves, and 
cause digestive troubles in animals to which it is fed. If 
cut for hay about the time it is in full bloom, and properly 
cured, the above objections are largely overcome. The 
curing is rather difficult on account of the high water con- 
tent, but may be well accomplished by piling in rather small 
cocks and allowing to remain for a few days. When ready 
for storing, the cocks should be opened up and thoroughly 
dried out. Crimson clover furnishes good pasture during 
the late summer and fall,' and it may be pastured again 
in the spring. It is also valuable for soiling, being avail- 



THE CLOVERS 275 

able for feeding just after the rye is fed and before the 
first cuttings of alfalfa. The principal use of crimson 
clover is to build up the fertility of the soil, by the addition 
of nitrogen and the increase of the supply of humus by 
plowing it under for green manure. Crimson clover 
takes up, on an average, about 140 pounds of nitrogen 
per acre during the year, about one-third of which remains 
in the roots. Being a large, quick growing plant, it adds 
much organic matter to the soil when plowed under. It 
is also an excellent cover crop for orchards and is used 
extensively for this purpose. 

276. Cultural methods. — Crimson clover may be 
grown as a crop in a regular rotation or it may be used as 
a catch crop. As a catch crop it is most often seeded in 
summer with buckwheat or in corn at the time of the last 
cultivation. Crimson clover grows rapidly, and if seeded 
in midsummer, will make most of its growth before winter. 
In this case, if it is used as a green manure crop, it may be 
plowed under early in the spring with good results, or it 
may be allowed to stand until it starts to bloom before 
plowing it under for a crop like corn or potatoes. Some 
farmers harvest the crop of hay and plow under only the 
clover stubble for corn or late potatoes. When used as 
a catch crop, it is usually seeded in the corn at the last 
cultivation and plowed under the next spring. The entire 
crop may be plowed under or a crop of hay may first be 
removed, and after plowing, corn may then be planted. 
Thus corn may be grown for two successive years with a 
legume sod to be plowed under for the second crop, and 
sometimes for both crops. This is possible in a four-year 
rotation of corn, corn, wheat, and red clover, using crimson 
clover as a catch crop in the first corn crop. Crimson 
clover may be seeded in the spring, but usually it is seeded 



276 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

in summer or early fall. The rate of seeding varies from 
12 to 20 pomicls per acre, 15 pounds being considered an 
average seeding. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES OF CLOVERS 

277. Common enemies. — The clovers are not usually seri- 
ously affected by fungous diseases, although leaf spot and leaf 
rust and root and stem rot sometimes cause serious injury. The 
entomologists list almost a hundred insects that do more or less 
injury to the clovers. Many of them, however, are not widely 
distributed, and the injury they do is comparatively small. 
The three most common and injurious enemies are the clover 
root-borer, the leaf weevil, and the seed midge. 

278. Clover root-borer. — The clover root-borer is a small, 
black beetle that lays its eggs in May or June in cavities in the 
crown of the plant or down the side of the roots. The eggs 
hatch and a small grub-like larva burrows into the roots, eating 
out great cavities and greatly weakening the plant. The larva 
changes to the pupa stage, from which the adult beetle emerges, 
but it remains in the root of the clover until spring, when it 
comes out to lay its eggs. The most effective means of control- 
ling this insect is to plow the field as soon as the hay has been 
removed, thus depriving the larvae of their food, causing them 
to starve. The root-borer attacks chiefly red clover and mam- 
moth clover, but it also injures alsike clover and alfalfa. 

279. The clover-leaf weevil. — The presence of this insect 
in a clover field may be detected by the large, round notches 
which are eaten in the edges of the leaves ; the larvae and adults 
may then be found hiding at the base of the plant under leaves or 
rubbish. Both the larvae and adults are shy creatures, working 
almost entirely at night, and if by chance they are found at 
work during the day, they immediately cease their activities and 
drop from the plant to the ground as if dead. The adults are 
stout, brown colored beetles with a strong snout. They lay 
their eggs in early fall on the plant or in the debris near its base. 
The larvae, which at first are white, change later to a dark green 
color, and become partly grown before winter. They remain 
dormant during the winter, and when spring comes, they again 



THE CLOVERS 211 

feed on the leaves and reach maturity in May or June. The 
adult beetles also feed upon the leaves and stems of the clover. 
Fortunately, these destructive insects are largely held in check 
by a fungus which grows upon their bodies, causing death. 
If not held in check by the fungus, they may be controlled to 
some extent by plowing the field soon after the removal of the 
hay crop. All kinds of clovers are more or less affected by the 
leaf weevil, but it prefers the red and white clovers to the alsike. 
280. The clover-seed midge. — Low yields of clover seed 
are quite frequently due to the clover-seed midge. The adult 
is a little fly, smaller than a mosquito, which lays its eggs beneath 
the glumes of the clover head. The larvae when they hatch 
burrow into the flower and eat the developing seed. There 
are usuallj^ two broods each year, the larvae from the first brood 
becoming full grown about the time red clover is ready to cut 
for hay. The second brood feeds on the second growth, the one 
usually cut for seed, and may be so numerous as to destroy the 
seed crop. The best means of controlling the insects is to remove 
the hay crop rather early, allowing the second crop to appear 
before the second brood of midges come on. By this means large 
yields of seed may be had, whereas if the hay is cut at the usual 
time, the insects may greatly reduce the seed crop. Red and 
mammoth clovers are most greatly affected by the midge. 



CHAPTER XV 



ALFALFA 

While alfalfa is comparatively a new crop to the Ameri- 
can farmer, it has been grown for centuries by farmers in 
other lands. Indeed, so far as we know, it is the oldest 
of cultivated leguminous forage crops, its culture in the east- 
ern Mediterranean regions 
having been established long 
before the Christian era. 
Probably it was first culti- 
vated in Persia, from which 
country it was introduced 
into Greece during the war 
between these two nations 
over 400 years B.C. From 
Greece it was carried to the 
Romans, whose armies, as 
they went forth to battle, 
carried it with them and 
were responsible for its in- 
troduction into many Euro- 
pean countries. When it first came to the United 
States we do not know, but probably in colonial days 
or soon thereafter, since we know that Thomas Jefferson 
grew it in Virginia. Its culture on the eastern coast of 
the United States, however, did not attract much atten- 
tion, and it was grown there but little. In 1851 it was 

278 




Fig. 99. — An alfalfa plant. 



ALFALFA 



279 




introduced from South America into California, where it 
soon met with great favor. From CaUfornia it rapidly 
spread eastward until a few years ago, it again reached the 
Atlantic Coast States, coming this time from the West. 

281. Description. — Alfalfa, Medicago sativa, is a peren- 
nial plant with an upright manner of growth and a deep 
root system. One of the distinctive features of alfalfa 
is the extent of its root system, which is characterized by 
a strong, deep-growing 
tap root, with compara- 
tively few feeding roots 
near the surface of the 
ground. Ordinarily 
the tap root does not 
branch, but sometimes 
two or three or more 
strong branches, often 
as large as the tap 
root itself, are given off from it a few inches below the 
surface of the ground, and they grow downward almost, 
if not quite, as deep as does the tap root. Wonderful 
tales have been told about the depth to which alfalfa 
roots will extend into the ground. One account relates 
the finding of them while digging a tunnel over one hun- 
dred feet below the surface of the ground, and many in- 
cidents are known where they have penetrated the ground 
to a depth of more than twenty feet. Alfalfa is a native 
of dry lands, and many years ago developed a deep-rooted 
character to secure a supply of water from the moisture 
in the deep subsoil. The roots of alfalfa will not grow 
more than a few inches below the water table, and the 
depth to which the roots may penetrate the soil, there- 
fore, may be determined by the position of the water table. 



Fig. 



100. — Arrangement of leaflets of 
alfalfa and clover. 



280 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



The roots are able to penetrate rather impervious sub- 
soils, but usually grow deeper in those of a loose, open 
character. The usual depth of the root system is from 

3 to 12 feet. 

282. The stems of the alfalfa 
plant, which bear short, leafy 
branches, arise from the crown or 
woody top of the tap root. The 
stems may be given off a little 
below the surface of the ground, 
thus forming a branched crown. 
The number of stems per plant 
varies from 3 to 15, and in rare 
cases individual plants may pro- 
duce over 100 stems. The plants 
vary in height, the average height 
probably being from IJ to 3 feet. 

The leaves are smaller and rather 
more narrow and more pointed 
than those of red clover. Thej^ 
differ from those of the clovers, too, 
in that the three leaflets, which are 
arranged together as in the clovers, 
do not all grow out from the end of 
the leaf branch in alfalfa, but the 
two lateral leaves of the group grow out oppositely from a 
point some little distance down the stem. 

The flowers are purple, and are carried in elongated 
clusters or racemes, which grow out from various points 
on the stems and branches. The flowers are similar in 
shape to those of red clover, and both honey bees and 
bumblebees are agents in their pollination. The seeds 
are produced in spirally twisted pods, which may have 




Fig. 101. — Alfalfa roots. 



ALFALFA 281 

from one to three coils, containing from one to eight seeds. 
The seeds are nominally kidney-shaped, although the 
coil may compress them into other shapes. They are 
uniform in color, usually light green, although unfavorable 
weather at harvest time may cause them to take on a 
darker .green color. They are slightly larger than those 
of red clover, and this difference, together with their 
characteristic shape and uniform color, serves as a means 
of distinguishing one from the other. 

283. Varieties. — Since alfalfa has become an impor- 
tant crop in this country, progressive growers and experi- 
ment stations have attempted to produce varieties or 
strains that will be better adapted and will yield larger 
returns than the ordinary alfalfa under certain condi- 
tions of soil and climate. Thus, a variety with un- 
usual drought-resisting qualities would be well adapted 
to certain regions of the West, and would probably give 
larger yields than ordinary alfalfa under the same con- 
ditions. Some progress has been made also in selecting 
for a higher percentage of leaves, to increase the value of 
the hay. For the most part, the progress that has been 
made in the way of securing better adapted varieties 
has been accomplished by importing seeds or plants from 
other countries having climate and soils similar to the 
section where better adapted varieties are desired. Usu- 
ally the variety is given the name of the country from 
which it was imported. Thus we find such varieties as 
Turkestan, Peruvian, and Arabian. Another variety, 
called Grimm alfalfa, grown in the Northwest, is 
named for the man who introduced it, and it is said 
to be more hardy than common alfalfa. Turkestan is 
also a hardy and drought-resisting variety, and is well 
adapted to certain sections of the semi-arid West, al- 



282 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

though it is no better in humid cUmates than ordinary 
alfalfa. 

284. Distribution. — Alfalfa is now grown to some 
extent in all countries having temperate climate. It is 
grown over wide areas in Europe, Asia, and North and 
South America. It is an important crop in many of 
the South American countries, especially in Argentina, 
where it is said to occupy more than one-sixth of the cul- 
tivated land. In the United States alfalfa has come into 
great favor, and its acreage has increased at a remarkable 
rate within the past thirty years. It is now grown in 
almost every state, but by far the greater acreage is to be 
found in the states west of the Mississippi. According 
to the 1910 census, 4,707,000 acres are devoted to growing 
alfalfa in the United States, 4,500,000 of which are west 
of the Mississippi, the New England States devoting less 
than 1300 acres to the crop. The comparatively small 
acreage devoted to alfalfa in the states east of the Mis- 
sissippi is due, in great measure, to its recent introduction, 
to a general lack of appreciation of its value, and to a 
lack of knowledge of its cultural requirements. While 
almost all of the states west of the Mississippi have large 
acreages devoted to alfalfa, Kansas, Colorado, California, 
and Idaho have the largest acreages. 

285. Adaptation to climate. — Alfalfa has a wide 
adaptation to climate, as is made evident by the study 
of its distribution. It is, however, better adapted to 
warm than to cool climates, but the area of its successful 
growth has gradually been extended and now reaches well 
up into Canada. Alfalfa, on account of its deep-rooting 
habit, is adapted to semi-arid sections, and when once 
well established, will withstand severe drought. In sec- 
tions with an annual average of less than 20 inches of 



ALFALFA 283 

rainfall, it is necessary to irrigate if good yields are to be 
expected. 

286. Adaptation to soils. — Alfalfa will grow in many 
different kinds of soil, but in order to produce a successful 
stand, it must, above all, be well-drained soil. Alfalfa 
seems to be sensitive to an excessive amount of moisture in 
the soil during the growing season. Soils that are water- 
logged or that have water standing over them during part 
of the growing season are not suitable for this crop 
until this condition is remedied by drainage ; but soils 
that have natural drainage, or that have porous sub- 
soils, giving natural sub-surface draining, are well 
adapted to the crop. Soils that have a watertable 
or a stratum of rock near the surface of the ground are 
not well adapted because the roots will thus be prevented 
from penetrating very deeply into the subsoil. Alfalfa 
does not grow well in acid soils, and when this condition 
exists, lime must be applied before a successful stand can 
be expected. If neutral or blue litmus paper turns red 
when placed in a sample of damp soil, the latter is acid, 
and lime should be applied. The amount to apply per 
acre will depend upon the degree of acidity. An applica- 
tion of one ton of finely ground limestone or one-half 
ton of burned lime per acre will meet the requirement of 
almost any acid soil. There must be a sufficient amount of 
lime in the surface soil. Some soils that have limestone 
in the subsoil will not grow the crop successfully until 
the surface soil is given a liberal application of lime. 

287. The soil must be fertile and well supplied with 
organic matter. While the growing of alfalfa adds nitro- 
gen to the soil, the plant is not able to use the nitrogen 
from the air until it has made a fair amount of growth ; 
consequently it must depend upon the nitrogen in the 



284 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

soil to tide it over until it is able to draw upon the supply 
in the air. Soils for alfalfa should have enough available 
plant food to permit the plants to reach the stage where 
they can make use of the nitrogen in the air. Poor soils 
are usually in a poor physical condition, and do not pro- 
vide a suitable place for the growth of bacteria. The 
physical condition of such soils may be greatly improved 
by applying barnyard manure and plowing under green 
manure crops a few years previous to the seeding of alfalfa. 
Organic matter not only improves the physical condition 
of the soil, but it also prevents heaving and winter-killing. 
The bacteria that produce the nodules on the roots of 
the alfalfa plant should be present in the soil, for it is due 
to these bacteria that nitrogen is gathered from the air. 
When they are not present, if the plant makes a success- 
ful growth, it must secure its nitrogen from the soil. 
In order to grow alfalfa without the aid of these bacteria, 
it is necessary to have a very fertile soil and one that is 
well supplied with nitrogen. However, it is not usually 
desirable to do this. Sometimes the bacteria that grow 
upon the roots of alfalfa are not present in the soil and it 
then becomes necessary to supply them artificially. As 
a rule it is best to inoculate a new field unless one is certain 
that the bacteria are present. 

The methods employed in inoculating the soil for alfalfa 
are the same as have been discussed in Chapter XIII. 
The bacteria that grow upon the roots of sweet clover and 
bur clover will also grow upon the roots of alfalfa. Soils 
that have successfully grown these crops may be used for 
inoculating alfalfa fields. 

288. Use of Alfalfa. — The reason why alfalfa is so 
highly esteemed is not difficult to see. The farmer, as a 
business man, considers both the cost of production and 



ALFALFA 285 

the returns from each crop he grows. If he considers 
alfalfa in this way, he must note the fact that three, and 
sometimes four or five cuttings of hay per year may be 
reasonably expected, and that the life of the stand varies 
from 5 to 15 years, depending upon conditions for growth. 
It will be readily seen that the annual expense of pre- 
paring the seed bed, of the purchase of seed and seeding 
that is necessary in the growing of general farm crops, 
makes the cost of production of alfalfa relatively low. 
Unlike many crops with a relatively low cost of produc- 
tion, alfalfa is a bountiful yielder of forage, possessing 
a high per cent of protein, which gives it high rank in 
feeding value. Experiments conducted by some experi- 
ment stations show that alfalfa compares favorably with 
wheat bran in the feeding of dairy cows. Other experi- 
ments, while not giving it an equal value with wheat bran, 
have given it a high rank among the feeds of farm animals. 
The growing of alfalfa not only makes possible the pro- 
duction of protein on the farm for balancing the feeding 
ration, but also, since it is a leguminous crop, supple- 
ments the work of clover in maintaining soil fertility. 
It is especially valuable as a soil improver because of its 
extensive root growth, which, when it decays, makes 
drainage channels for air and water and opens up passages 
for the roots of succeeding crops that do not penetrate 
the soil so readily. 

289. Almost all of the alfalfa produced in the United 
States is used for hay. Alfalfa hay is relished by all 
kinds of live stock, including hogs and chickens. The 
yield of hay per acre varies greatly with soils and climate. 
The fact that several cuttings per season may be had 
makes possible a relatively high yield. Each cutting 
on good soils, if favored with sufficient rainfall, may 



286 FIELB CROP PRODUCTION 

yield from one to two or more tons per acre, giving a total 
production of from 3 to 8 tons. Alfalfa is used to some 
extent as pasture, and is especially valuable for hogs. 
Cattle, when pastured upon it, are subject to bloating, 
but if the same precautions are taken as were suggested 
for pasturing them on red clover, little trouble need be 
experienced. Alfalfa does not form a compact sod, and 
does not stand tramping nor close grazing well, and when 
used for this purpose, a sufficient acreage should be grown 
to permit of changing the stock from one field to another 
from time to time to allow the new growth to come on. 
Alfalfa is an excellent soiling crop, since new growth 
comes on rapidly after cutting and a small acreage will 
feed a comparatively large number of animals. 

CULTURAL METHODS 

290. Preparing the soil. — The manner of preparing 
the seed bed for alfalfa will depend largely upon the pre- 
ceding crop. There seems to be no one best way of 
seeding alfalfa. Good stands may be secured when 
greatly varying methods of seeding are practiced. In 
some sections of the country seeding in the corn before 
or just after the last cultivation has been very successful. 
Likewise, seeding in the wheat or oats in the spring after 
the manner of sowing clover has been successful in some 
places. In many localities these methods have not 
met with success, and a more careful preparation of the 
seed bed is necessary. If this method is followed, the 
land should be plowed early and cultivated carefully 
with a harrow or cultivator until the weeds are killed and 
then the seed will be sowed in a seed bed free from weeds 
and at the same time well supplied with moisture. Some- 
times it may be possible to follow early potatoes with 



ALFALFA 287 

alfalfa. This practice accomplishes almost the same 
results that a bare fallow does. By cultivating the 
potatoes throughout the growing season, almost all of 
the weeds are killed, and enough moisture is retained to 
start the alfalfa. This practice also permits the removing 
of a crop from the field, avoiding in this way the loss of 
the use of the land as is the case when bare fallow is prac- 
ticed. If alfalfa follows potatoes, the land need not be 
plowed again, but should be well worked down and allowed 
to settle for a couple of weeks before seeding. Alfalfa 
seems to require a rather compact seed bed, and if the 
soil is allowed to settle and become compact, the chances 
for a good stand are greatly increased. 

291. Seeding. — There is much adulterated seed on 
the market which, if purchased, not only increases the 
price of the alfalfa, but may introduce very troublesome 
weeds into the field. It is well to get samples of seed and 
prices from several different places, and to test the seed 
for purity and vitality. This method will enable the 
purchaser to get the best seed at the lowest price. Being 
a perennial plant, alfalfa may be seeded at any time 
during the growing season. If early spring seeding is 
practiced, a nurse crop can sometimes be used to advan- 
tage. Probably the best crop to use for this purpose is 
spring barley, seeded at the rate of 1| bushels per acre. 
Oats may be used as a nurse crop if they are removed 
early for hay, since, if allowed to ripen, they may smother 
out the alfalfa. A nurse crop is not generally recom- 
mended for any other than early spring seeding. If 
fall seeding is to be practiced, the seeding should be early 
enough in the fall to enable the plants to make several 
inches of growth before winter. The growth from late 
fall seeding is frequently injured during the winter. 



288 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

The rate of seeding will depend upon the quality of 
seed and upon the condition of the seed bed. In an experi- 
ment on the rate of seeding conducted at the Ohio Experi- 
ment Station, seed was sown at various rates, ranging 
from 5 to 25 pounds per acre. The 10 and 15 pound rates 
gave the best results, there being very little difference 
between them. If the seed is of good vitality and the 
seed bed is in good condition, 15 pounds of seed per acre 
is considered enough. 

292. Cultivation. — The problem of keeping a stand, 
to many farmers, especially to those east of the Missis- 
sippi River, has been a bigger problem than that of getting 
one. Weeds seem to be the greatest factor with which 
the grower has to contend in keeping a stand. Many 
farmers say they have solved the weed problem by prac- 
ticing a system of cultivation. Some farmers cultivate 
each spring with a spring tooth or disk harrow, just before 
the young shoots start to grow ; others not only cultivate 
in the spring but after each cutting throughout the season. 
This practice kills the weeds and at the same time loosens 
up the soil, incorporating any vegetable matter that may 
have accumulated from fallen leaves or from other sources. 
It has been demonstrated that alfalfa will not be injured 
by severe cultivation, after it is once well established. 
In one experiment, a plot was cultivated five times with a 
spring tooth harrow early in the spring, and the alfalfa 
showed no bad effects from the cultivation, while most 
of the weeds in the field were killed. Cultivation, however, 
is to be recommended only for fields in which the alfalfa 
plants have become well established, usually after they 
are two years old. Sometimes weeds are troublesome in 
fields during the first year, in which case the fields should 
be run over with the mower, clipping off the plants and 



ALFALFA 



289 



weeds. The mower should be set to run rather high, 
usually about 4 inches. If the plants turn yellow and 
cease to grow during the first year, they should be clipped 
off with the mower so that they may start a new growth. 
Frequently, however, when the plants turn yellow, it is 
because the proper bacteria to furnish them with nitrogen 
are not present. 

293. Making alfalfa hay. — Alfalfa should be cut for 
hay when the new shoots for the next crop start out from 




Fig. 102. — ^ Stacking alfalfa in New Mexico. 

the crown of the plant. Usually this occurs about the 

time the plants begin to bloom, although the bloom may 

sometimes be farther advanced before the new shoots 

appear. When the shoots appear, the crop should be 

cut promptly, since, if the cutting is delayed until after 

this time, the leaves begin to drop from the plant and the 

quality of the hay is reduced. Cutting at this time is 

also more favorable for the next crop for, if cut before the 

new shoots appear, the plants will be greatly weakened 

and sometimes destroyed, and if cutting be delayed until 
u 



290 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



after this time, the second crop is put back, which, in 
the course of the year, may mean one less cutting. The 
last cutting in the fall should not be made so late that the 
plants will not be able to make a growth of 8 or 9 inches, 
to protect the crowns during the winter. 

Composition of Alfalfa Hay 





Ash 


Fat 


Protein 


Crude 

Fiber 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Stem .... 
Leaves .... 


4.99 
14.48 


0.81 
2.96 


6.35 
23.33 


54.33 
13.15 


27.79 
41.16 



It will be seen from the table that the leaves are much 
richer in fat, ash, protein, and carbohydrates than the 
stems, and for that reason form the most valuable part 
of the hay. The leaves of alfalfa, when dry, like those of 
other leguminous hay plants, are easily broken off. It 
is necessary, therefore, if the best quality of hay is to be 
secured, that the harvesting be done in such a way as 
to retain as many of the leaves as possible. This may 
be done by handling the hay in a semi-cured condition 
as far as possible. Cutting may be done either in the 
afternoon or morning, as was suggested for the making of 
red clover hay, and the hay allowed to cure for a short 
time before it is raked up. The following day it may be 
piled in small cocks and allowed to cure for a few days 
before hauling to the barn or stack. Alfalfa hay does not 
turn water readily, and the best quality is secured when 
the cocks are covered with canvas caps while curing to 
protect them from the rain and dew. In the eastern 
half of the United States, almost all of the hay is stored 



ALFALFA 



291 



in sheds or barns, but in the West, where large acreages 
are grown, much of it is stored in large stacks. To 
reduce the bulk for hauling to market or shipping, the 
hay may be baled when taken from the stack or barn. 
Alfalfa meal, which has recently appeared on the market, 
is the finely ground hay, which may be fed with less waste. 
Its feeding value, is, of course, the same as that of hay. 




Fig. 103. — Canvas covers employed to protect alfalfa cocks from rain. 

294. Harvesting the seed. — Alfalfa does not produce 
much seed in humid climates. Almost all of the seed 
grown in the United States is produced in the semi-arid 
regions of the West or on irrigated lands. The produc- 
tion of seed seems to be limited to a considerable extent 
by the amount of soil moisture. There must be enough 
moisture to enable the plant to mature its seed, but not 
enough to cause the new shoots to start out from the 
crown before the seeds are ripe. If the new shoots start 
out before the seeds are ripe, the yield of seed is greatly 
reduced. Only in certain sections of the West are moisture 
conditions favorable for the production of a good seed 
crop. On irrigated lands, where the moisture supply may 



292 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

be controlled, alfalfa seed is an important crop. The 
yield of seed is also influenced by the rate of seeding, the 
best yield being obtained when the crop is seeded thinly, 
either in rows or broadcast. The crop is harvested when 
most of the seed pods have turned brown. It may be 
cut either with a self-rake or a buncher ; and if a machine 

















-■^■* '^^^^BHil^B 


^n 


"^ % 




33 


u 


i 


:^|-^^ 
^^j 






E 


^UE 


ma 


m- 






""f^^^^^H 



Fig. 104. — Farmers examining alfalfa test plots at the Ohio station. 

for hulling it is available, the seeds may be thrashed out 
immediately, or it may be stacked after curing for some 
time in the bunches so as to prevent heating in the stack. 
The yield varies from 2 to 5 bushels per acre, which at 
present prices makes it a profitable crop. 

295. Insects and diseases. — While many insects feed on 
alfalfa, seldom are they numerous enough to cause serious loss. 
Sometimes in the West, however, the grasshoppers become so 
numerous as to cause serious injury to the crop. They may be 
controlled to some extent by disking the field early in the spring 
to destroy the egg sacs, and later in the season by the use of a 
" hopperdozer." 

The most common fungous diseases of alfalfa are the leaf spot, 
leaf rust, and root rot. The root rot is commonly found in the 
South, where it also attacks the cotton plant and as the spores 



ALFALFA 293 

remain in the soil there is no way of controlling it except by 
seeding in fields free from it. The leaf spot is quite injurious 
to the crop in many places and may be best controlled by clipping 
and removing the crop from the field, and encouraging new 
growth which may be vigorous enough to overcome the attack. 
No practical method is known for controlling the leaf rust of 
alfalfa. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE VETCHES, SWEET CLOVERS, 
AND OTHERS 

There are several kinds of vetches, but only two, 
hairy vetch, Vicia villosa, and common vetch, Vicia 
saliva, are of agricultural importance in this country. 

296. Hairy vetch. — This species is also known as 
sand vetch and winter vetch. It is a winter annual, with 
long, trailing, vine-like stems, which are not strong enough 
to grow erect unless supported by other plants. The 
leaflets are arranged in pairs on a rather long midrib, which 
terminates in a tendril. The flowers are produced in 
racemes which grow from the axils of the midribs and are 
bluish-purple in color. The seed pods, when they ma- 
ture, are straw colored and from 1 to 2 inches in length 
and about | inch wide. The seeds are black, round or 
spherical in shape, and about one-half the size of a pea. 
The roots are inclined to be fibrous and produce an abun- 
dance of tubercles, the bacteria in which are active late 
in the fall and early in the spring, thus making the plant 
a great nitrogen gatherer. 

297. Adaptation and uses. — Hairy vetch is very hardy 
and is able to withstand severe cold during the winter. 
It grows well on almost any well-drained soil, but is espe- 
cially adapted to rather sandy soil. The most common 
uses are as a cover crop and as a green manure crop for 

plowing under to improve the soil. As a cover crop, it 

294 



THE VETCHES, SWEET CLOVERS, AND OTHERS 295 



is often used in orchards, and as a green manure crop, it 

is especially adapted for following truck or other early 

maturing crops. It is sometimes used for hay, but unless 

seeded with rye or wheat, the stems trail on the ground 

and become fastened together by the numerous tendrils 

into a dense mat, making harvesting difficult. When 

grown with one of the 

cereals, the stems are held 

erect and the hay is more 

easily handled. When 

seeded with rye or wheat, 

vetch makes an excellent 

soiling crop for use in the 

spring or early summer. 

It is sometimes pastured 

in the fall and spring, but 

does not stand tramping 

well, and is more valuable 

as hay. As a green manure 

crop, it has considerable 

merit. In the amount of 

nitrogen and organic matter 

added to the soil, it has 

few rivals. When grown 

for plowing under, it should 

be seeded with rye, which will not only add considerable 

organic matter, but the vetch is less twined together and 

is more easily turned under. Hairy vetch is sometimes 

a troublesome weed, particularly in wheat fields. The 

seeds ripen about the same time as wheat, and are not 

easily separated from the thrashed grain, either by the air 

blast or with screens. 

298. Cultural methods. — While hairy vetch may be 




Fig. 105.^ — Vetch, showing flowers, 
leaves, and tendrils. 



296 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



sown in the spring, it is most commonly seeded in the 
summer or early fall. If seeded in the summer or fall, 
it matures seed the next year about the time of wheat 
harvest. If seeded in the spring, the seeds are matured 

late the following fall. 
When seeded alone, it 
may be put in with 
the grain drill at the 
rate of about 40 
pounds per acre. It 
is best, however, to 
use only about 25 or 
30 pounds of vetch 
and add to it about 
4 pecks of rye, this 
combination making a 
desirable crop for for- 
age or green manure. 
The time of the seed- 
ing will depend upon 
the preceding crop. 
If it follows early 
potatoes, the seeding 
may be done as soon 
as the potatoes are 
harvested. If corn 
precedes it, it may 
either be drilled in 




Fig. 106. — A sample of hairy vetch. 



the standing corn or seeded after the corn is cut. Unless 
the corn is an early variety, allowing early cutting, the 
season may be too far advanced for a successful seeding 
of vetch. When grown for seed, the rate of seeding 
should not be more than 2 pecks per acre. The yield 



THE VETCHES, SWEET CLOVERS, AND OTHEBS 297 

of seed varies from 3 to 9 bushels per acre, and at present 
prices, $10 per bushel, is a profitable crop. Most of 
the seed used is imported. 

299. Spring vetch. — Spring vetch closely resembles 
hairy vetch in its general appearance and manner of 
growth. It is an annual, and differs from hairy vetch 
in the size and shape of the pods and in the size of the 
seed. The seed pod is black in color and is longer and 
only about one-half as wide as that of hairy vetch, but 







Fkj. i07. — A field of vetch in full l)looni. 

the seeds are somewhat longer than those of the latter. 
It is less resistant to cold than hairy vetch, and for this 
reason is less commonly grown in the northern part of the 
United States. In Western Oregon and Washington, 
however, where it is grown as a winter crop with oats 
or wheat for hay, it is of considerable importance. In the 
South it is grown largely for green manure or as a winter 
crop with cereals for forage. Spring vetch is regarded 
with high favor in England as a soiling crop, and is more 



298 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



commonly gro\vn there than the hairy vetch, while in 
this country the reverse is true. 



THE SWEET CLOVERS 

The sweet clovers are natives of Central Asia, and 
have been cultivated for many centuries in southern 

Europe, where they 
have been used chiefly 
for bee pasture, and to 
some extent for forage 
and green manure. 
Sweet clover was intro- 
duced into the United 
States in colonial days, 
but was until within 
recent years, and still 
is, in some sections of 
the country to-day, con- 
sidered a troublesome 
weed. There are two 
common species of sweet 
clover, white sweet clo- 
ver, Melilotis alba, and 
yellow sweet clover, 
Melilotis officinalis. 

300. Description. — 
White sweet clover is 
also known as Bokara clover and Melilotis. In its appear- 
ance and manner of growth it resembles alfalfa ; in fact, 
when the plants are young, they can scarcely be told apart. 
The sweet clover, however, grows taller than alfalfa, the 
stems sometimes reaching a height of 8 or 10 feet. The 
stems are coarser and more woody than those of alfalfa, 




Fig. 108. — A sweet clover plant. 



THE VETCHES, SWEET CLOVERS, AND OTHERS 299 

and not so abundantly supplied with leaves. White 
sweet clover is a biennial, the first year growing from 1 
to 3 feet in height, the next year growing much larger and 
producing numerous white flowers in the form of racemes. 
The plants bloom all summer long during the second year 
of their growth and mature an abundance of seed, which 




Fig. 109. — Sweet clover requires an abundance of lime in the soil. 
The plot at the left was limed before seeding. Both plots were seeded 
at the same time. 



closely resembles that of alfalfa. The root system is 
similar in structure and extent to that of alfalfa. During 
the first year, the tap root is enlarged by the storing 
of reserve plant food for starting the second year's growth. 
Nodules are produced on the roots in abundance by the 
same variety of bacteria that live on the roots of alfalfa. 
301. Distribution and adaptation. — Sweet clover is 
now found in almost all parts of the civilized world. 



300 



FIELD CTiOP PRODUCTION 



In the United States it is found in almost every state. 
It possesses wide adaptation to soils and climate, growing 
equally well in the North and South. In most places 
it is considered a weed, and may be found growing in 
waste places, along roadsides and railroad embankments, 
in gravel pits and stone quarries. In some few sections 




Fig. 110. — Sweet clover growing by the roadside. 



of the country, it has recently become highly prized as a 
cultivated crop. Sweet clover, like alfalfa and red clover, 
is extremely sensitive to acid soils, producing the most 
luxuriant growth on well-drained limestone areas. 

302. Uses of sweet clover. — The large, rank growth 
of stems and the well-developed root system have recently 
called attention to its value as a soil improver. Few 
plants add so much organic matter to the soil, and at the 



THE VETCHES, SWEET CLOVERS, AND OTHERS 301 

same time produce such an extensive root system supplied 
with nitrogen-gathering bacteria. Sweet clover is also 
used in some localities for hay, but on account of the large, 
woody stems and a characteristic bitter taste, it is hardly 
probable that it can successfully compete for this purpose 
with alfalfa. It should be cut for hay before the first 
flowers appear in order to yield hay of the best quality. 
It is handled much the same way that alfalfa is handled. 
Sweet clover may be used for pasture or soiling, but 
on account of its unpleasant bitter taste, live stock have 
to become accustomed to it before they acquire a liking 
for it. 

303. Cultural methods. — Many farmers have expe- 
rienced difficulty in securing a stand of sweet clover in 
cultivated fields, although it may grow abundantly along 
the roadside. There are two reasons for the frequent 
failure to secure a successful stand. Sweet clover re- 
quires a firm, compact seed bed, and the young plants do 
not grow well on loose soil, as do most of the other culti- 
vated crops. Another reason for frequent poor stands is 
the poor quality of the seed secured on the market. Sweet 
clover seed contains many hard seeds that do not germi- 
nate readily, sometimes as much as 60 per cent of it 
failing to germinate for this reason. The seeds should 
always be tested for germination and the rate of applica- 
tion made to correspond with the percentage of germina- 
tion. Sometimes failure to secure a stand may be due 
to the lack of sufficient fime in the soil, which should be 
tested with litmus paper before seeding, unless it is known 
to be well supplied with lime. The seed may be sown 
broadcast on fall sown grain fields in early spring while 
the ground is honeycombed, or it may be seeded alone 
on a firm seed bed in late spring or summer. The usual 



302 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

rate of seeding is from 20 to 30 pounds per acre, and it 
must be increased if a large number of hard seeds are 
present. Sweet clover may be seeded in midsummer 
or early fall with vetch for green manure. They make 
an admirable combination for this purpose, and since both 
are legumes, they add nitrogen to the soil and at the same 
time supply an abundance of organic matter. 

304. Yellow sweet clover. — Yellow sweet clover is 
similar in its habits of growth and requirements to the 
white sweet clover. It differs from it in being a less rank 
grower, having finer stems and yellow flowers which 
appear from two to three weeks earlier than those of the 
white sweet clover. Yellow sweet clover is better adapted 
for hay than for green manure. 

BUR CLOVERS 

305. Bur clovers, Medicago maculata, and M. denticulata. — 
These plants are natives of southern Europe and have been 
introduced into the southern part of the United States, where 
they are grown for pasture and hay and for soil improvement. 
Toothed medic {M. denticulata) is grown largely in California 
and the other Southwestern States, while the Southern bur clover 
is more common in the Gulf States. The bur clovers are closely 
related to alfalfa, belonging to the same genus, Medicago. They 
are low growing annuals, the stems trailing along on the ground 
unless seeded thickly or grown with grasses or cereals, which 
hold them up. The flowers are small and yellow and form 
clusters about the stem. The seeds, when mature, are incased 
in a round, prickly pod, from which they are not usually removed 
for seeding. 

306. Uses and cultural methods. — Southern bur clover is 
most useful as a cover crop to occupy the soil after the cotton has 
been removed. It is also used as a pasture, and when grown with 
Bermuda grass, furnishes abundant pasture of excellent quality. 
It may be seeded in Bermuda sods by scattering the burs over 
the sod in the fall or by plowing shallow furrows four or five 



THE VETCHES, SWEET CLOVERS, AND OTHERS 303 

inches apart, dropping the seeds in and covering them lightly 
with soil. The plants start to grow about the time the Bermuda 
grass is killed by the frosts in the fall, and in mild climates they 
grow throughout the winter. The first year after seeding 
clover in the Bermuda grass sod the plants are not numerous 
enough to furnish much pasture but will reseed the field for 
the next year, when the new plants will furnish pasture late in 
the fall and early in the spring. For a hay crop, on account of 
its low growing habit, it is best seeded in the fall with oats or 
wheat, which combination may be cut the next summer and will 
yield a good tonnage of excellent hay. 

When used as a green manure crop, from 50 to 60 pounds of 
the burs are sown per acre. The plants grow during late fall 
and early spring, making a good growth before being plowed 
under for a cultivated crop. The bacteria that produce the 
nodules on the roots of bur clover do not seem to be widely dis- 
tributed, and frequently it is necessary to inoculate the soil 
before nodules are developed. The bacteria which work on the 
roots of bur clover also live on the roots of alfalfa and sweet 
clover, and soils that have produced these crops successfully 
may be used for inoculating the bur clover. 

JAPAN CLOVER 

307. Japan clover, Lespedeza striata. — This plant is a 
native of eastern Asia and was introduced into the United States 
early in the '60's. During the Civil War it was carried by the 
armies for feeding their horses and was spread over most of the 
Southern States east of the Mississippi River. Since that time 
the area of its growth has been extended somewhat, and it is 
now found growing from New Jersey westward to central Kansas 
and southward to the Gulf. 

308. Description, — Japan clover is a low growing annual, 
usually from 6 to 10 inches in height, although under very favorable 
conditions it may reach a height of 3 feet. When the plants are 
seeded thinly on the ground, the stems are prostrate ; but when 
the stand is thick, the plants support each other and are erect. 
The stems are fine and the leaves are carried in three's and are 
almost sessile on the branches, which spring from the main 
stems. The flowers are pink and nearly sessile. The seed 



804 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

when ripe shatters badly, and during harvesting enough is left 
on the ground to reseed the field. The roots are fine and com- 
paratively shallow and produce nodules abundantly. 

309. Uses and cultural methods. — Japan clover will grow 
in almost all types of soil and is especially well adapted to poor 
soils, furnishing pasture on waste and barren places where other 
pasture plants will not grow well. It is able to withstand severe 
drought and furnishes forage during the entire season from spring 
until the frost kills it in the fall. As a pasture plant it is highly 
prized on account of its high feeding value, and it is well adapted 
to growing for this purpose with Bermuda grass and redtop. In 
pastures it reseeds itself, and although not a perennial, furnishes 
pasture year after year. Until recently it was grown only for 
pasture, but now on good soils, where it makes a good growth, it 
is frequently cut for hay. Usually it will furnish two cuttings 
during the season, although the second crop may best be cut for 
seed. On good land it yields from one to two tons of hay per 
acre. It seeds abundantly, and yields from 5 to 10 bushels per 
acre, the market price of which is from $3 to $4 per bushel. 
Almost all of the seed on the market is produced in Louisiana and 
Mississippi. When a new field is to be seeded down with bur 
clover, it may best be done in the spring by scattering from 15 to 
20 pounds of seed per acre and covering it with the harrow. 



CHAPTER XVII 
LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND GRAIN 

Of the cultivated legumes in this country, peas and 
beans rank next in importance to the clovers and alfalfa. 
In the Orient they hold a place of greater importance than 
any other group of legumes. There are many kinds of 
peas and beans, but only the important ones will be 
discussed in this chapter. 

THE SOY BEAN 

310. History. — The soy bean is probably a native of 
China or Japan. It has been grown in those countries 
for centuries, and holds an important place in the dietary 
of the people. It was introduced into Europe about a 
century ago, and for many years thereafter it was grown 
only as an ornamental plant and in botanical gardens. 
From Austria-Hungary in 1875 came the first published 
report of an experiment with soy beans, in which the writer 
urged their more extensive culture and pointed out their 
great usefulness. In the United States soy beans have 
been grown in a very small way for a great many years, 
but only within the last 20 or 25 years have they occupied 
a position of any importance. During this time they have 
spread rapidly over the country and have steadily gained 
in favor, until now they are regarded by many as one of 
our most important crops. 

311. Description. — The soy bean, Glycine hispida, 

X 305 



306 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



is a summer annual with a branched, upright, rather 
woody stem, which grows from 2 to SJ feet or more in 
height. The leaves are trifoHate, rather large, and quite 
abundant. The flowers, which are clustered in the axils 
of the leaves, are small and inconspicuous and are either 
white or purple in color. Soy beans are ordinarily self- 
pollinated, although 
insects may produce 
cross-pollination. 
The pods, when they 
develop, are short as 
compared with those 
of the cowpeas, being 
from 1 to 2J inches 
in length, containing 
from 2 to 4 seeds. 
The stems, leaves, and 
seed pods are covered 
with short hairs, usu- 
ally reddish brown in 
color. In general ap- 
pearance the soy bean 
is more like the peas 
than like the beans. 




Fig. 111. — A soy bean plant. 



The root system of the soy bean consists of a large tap 
root, with comparatively few lateral branches. The root 
growth is rather slight when compared with that of most 
of the other legumes, but the tubercles that are formed 
on them are large and abundant. 

There are almost a hundred varieties of soy beans 
grown in the United States. They vary greatly in the 
character of the plant, size and shape of the seed, and in 
the length of season required for their growth. Many 



LEGUMES FOR FOB AGE AND GRAIN 



307 



of them have been imported from the Orient and retain 
their Oriental names. Others are named so as to indicate 
the color of the grain and the length of season required 
for growth. Thus we find such varieties as Early Yellow, 
Medium Yellow, Medium Green, etc. There is a great 
difference among the varieties in the amount of leaf and 
stem growth, and also in the retention of leaves and the 




Fig. 112. — A field of soy beans. 



shattering of the grain. Certain varieties are, therefore, 
well adapted for forage, while others may be better adapted 
for the production of grain. 

312. Distribution and adaptation. — While soy beans 
have a rather wide distribution throughout the United 
States, they are best adapted to a climate similar to that 
required by corn. They do not grow well as far north as 
the field bean grows, and in the South are largely replaced 
by the cowpea. They are, therefore, principally grown in 



308 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

the section of the country north of Kentucky and Kansas. 
Soy beans will grow well in almost all types of soils. 
They grow well on rather poor soils if the nodule-forming 
bacteria are present, under these conditions producing 
a rather small growth of leaves and stems, but a rela- 
tively high yield of grain. On very fertile soils the growth 
of leaves and stems is large, and is frequently accompanied 
by relatively low yields of grain. Soy beans are not so 
sensitive to wet soils as many legumes, although they 
grow best on well-drained land ; neither are they as 
sensitive to acid soils as clover and alfalfa, although 
limestone soils are most favorable for their growth. 

313. Uses. — In China, Japan, and other Oriental 
countries soy beans hold an important place as a supple- 
ment to rice in the dietary of the people, but in the United 
States they have never attained much favor as human 
food, probably on account of the characteristic flavor 
which they have after cooking, that is not relished by 
Americans. In Europe oil is extracted from the grain, 
which, after being refined, is used in combination with 
other oils for culinary purposes. The crude oil is used for 
paints, varnishes, soap, and also for lubricating purposes. 
In this country the grain is almost entirely used for seed 
and for the feeding of live stock. As a stock food soy 
beans may be utilized as grain, hay, soiling, and pasture. 
The great demand for seed, on account of the rapidly 
increasing acreage devoted to the crop, has resulted in 
nearly all of the crop being harvested for grain, which is 
sold for seed. It cannot be long, however, before the 
production of grain will exceed the demand for seed, 
which will result in the price per bushel being based upon 
the feeding value. Soy beans are almost equal in feeding 
value to gluten meal, cotton seed meal, and other con- 



LEGUMES FOR FOB AGE AND GRAIN 309 

centrates. They may be fed to all classes of live stock, 
usually being ground and fed in combination with other 
seeds. 

314. Soy beans, because of their erect growth, are 
more easily handled as hay than are cowpeas. The hay, 
to be of the best quality, must be handled in such a way 
as to retain as many of the leaves as possible, since the 
greater part of the nutrients is carried in them. Soy 
bean hay of good quality compares favorably in feeding 
value with alfalfa hay. Soy beans hold an important 
place as a soiling crop, since they furnish forage in late 
summer or early fall when the pasture is shortest. Some- 
times they are fed with some non-leguminous forage crop, 
such as millet or sorghum, to furnish protein in the ration. 
Frequently soy beans are grown for the silo, but experi- 
ence has shown that while they alone do not make good 
silage, in combination with corn they make a desirable 
mixture for this purpose. Silage made from soy beans 
alone, when fed to dairy cows, imparts a disagreeable 
odor to the milk. When mixed with corn, at the rate of 
2 tons of corn and 1 ton of soy beans, this objection is 
overcome, and the feeding value of the silage is increased 
over that of silage made from corn alone. Soy beans are 
not well adapted for pasture and are not often grown for 
this purpose. Sometimes they are grown for hog pasture, 
but they are not as good for this purpose as is rape. Hogs 
are often turned into the field after the crop is harvested 
to gather the shattered beans, and sometimes they are 
allowed to gather the entire crop. As a green manure 
crop, soy beans are about equal to clover in the amount 
of nitrogen added to the soil if the entire crop is plowed 
under. If only the roots and stubble are considered, soy 
beans add only about one-sixth as much nitrogen as the 



310 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

roots and stubble of red clover. Soy beans, however, 
have the advantage of making their growth in a com- 
paratively short period of time. 

315. Cultural methods. — The bacteria that form the 
nodules on the roots of the soy beans are not so generally 
distributed as those that work on the roots of the clover. 
In many cases, especially in sections where the crop is 
new, it is desirable to inoculate the soil. If the land has 
not previously grown the crop, usually but few nodules 
will be produced the first year without inoculation, and 
the crop will have to make its growth from the nitrogen 
in the soil. It is especially desirable to inoculate soils 
that are low in nitrogen. If the crop is grown without 
inoculation on the same field for two or three years, the 
soil will usually become inoculated from the few bacteria 
that may be carried to the field with the seed, which 
will multiply to a sufficient extent to effect the inoculation 
of the entire field. Ordinarily no fertilizer is applied to 
the soil for the growing of soy beans, although it maybe 
profitable to treat poor soil with barnyard manure or 
mineral fertilizers. The seed bed required for soy beans 
is similar to that required for corn. 

316. Seeding. — Soy beans should not be seeded until 
rather late in the season after the danger from frost is 
past, and the soil is well warmed up. In most places, 
this will be about the time corn planting is finished. The 
rate of seeding will depend upon the use to be made of 
the crop. If it is grown for the grain, the usual method 
is to seed in rows 28 to 30 inches apart, using about 3 
pecks of seed per acre. If grown for forage, the largest 
yield and the best quality of hay, on account of the fine- 
ness of the stems, may be obtained when the seed is drilled 
close at the rate of 6 to 8 pecks per acre, the exact rate 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND GRAIN 311 

depending upon the variety, some kinds having smaller 
seeds than others. Soy beans rapidly decrease in vi- 
tality with age, and seeds more than one year old 
should always be tested before seeding. When drilled 
close, no cultivation is given the plants, but when seeded 
in rows, they should be cultivated frequently during the 
period of early growth. 

317. Harvesting. — The best quality of hay may be 
secured if the plants are cut at the time the pods are well 




Fig. 113. — Soy beans growing in corn. 

formed and before many have matured. If cutting is 
delayed until after this time in most varieties, many of 
the leaves, which form the most valuable part of the hay, 
will be lost, and the stems will become woody and unpal- 
atable. On account of the ease with which the leaves 
are broken off when dry, the curing should be done in the 
cock. After cutting, the plants are allowed to lie in the 
swath for a day or so, and the drying can then be com- 
pleted with less loss of leaves by cocking. After a few 



312 FIELD CROP PBODUCTION 

days in the cock, the hay may be stored. When used for 
silage, the cutting may be delayed until the beans are well 
formed^ as the loss in this case is slight, since the handling 
is completed while the plants are green. 

When soy beans are harvested for the seed, they should 
be cut after the pods have turned brown or black and 
one-half or more of the leaves have fallen. A mower 
with a side delivery attachment or a self-rake may be 
used, which will prevent the shelling and loss of the beans 
by the passing of the mower wheels over the cut swath. 
After cutting they should be piled in cocks and allowed 
to cure until ready for thrashing. When thoroughly 
dry, they may be thrashed by tramping or with a flail, 
although large acreages are best thrashed with an ordinary 
grain thrasher, by removing the concaves and running the 
machine at a slow rate of speed. After thrashing, the 
beans should be spread out to dry before bagging or bulk- 
ing in the bin. The yield of grain per acre varies from 
10 to 25 bushels, the average probably being about 15 
bushels. 

THE COWPEA 

The cowpea is said to be a native of India or Persia, 
and from there to have been introduced into China at an 
early date. It was not known in Europe until about the 
middle of the sixteenth century. In the United States 
it was introduced into South Carolina or Georgia early 
in the eighteenth century. It was not of great impor- 
tance in this country, however, until within the last few 
decades, but now it is the most important legume of the 
Southern States. 

318. Description. — The cowpea, Vigna unguiculata, 
is an annual with a habit of growth varying with the 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND GRAIN 



313 




variety from a single upright, branching stem to a pro- 
fusely trailing form. Almost all varieties have the trail- 
ing habit of growth, and under favorable conditions of 
climate and soil some of them produce stems 15 feet or 
more in length. The stems are marked with longitu- 
dinal grooves, and the color of the stems is associated with 
that of the leaves, varying in this 
respect from pale to dark green. 
The leaves are trifoliate and are 
larger than those of the soy bean. 
The flowers are borne singly and 
are much larger than those of the 
soy bean, being more nearly the 
size of those of the sweet pea. The 
flowers are whitish, violet, or yellow 
in color, and rival the sweet pea 
in beauty. The pods are long, 
straight, or slightly curved, and 
many seeded. The seeds vary 
greatly in size and may be either smooth or wrinkled. 
They vary also in color, the common colors being white, 
yellow, green, brown, and mottled. The stem, leaves, and 
pod of the cowpea, unlike those of the soy bean, are not 
covered with hair. In appearance the cowpea more closely 
resembles the field and garden bean than it does the soy 
bean. 

The root system of the cowpea consists of a well-devel- 
oped tap root, which gives off lateral branches from the 
upper part. These grow out horizontally for some distance 
and then grow downward rather deeply. The roots of 
the cowpea are more extensive than those of the soy 
bean, being more numerous and penetrating more deepl}^ 
into the soil. 



Fig. 114. — Pods of cow- 
peas and soy beans. 



314 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

There are some 15 important varieties of the cowpeas 
grown in the United States, and they vary much in their 
habits of growth, most of them being intermediate between 
the erect and the extremely long vined varieties. They 
also vary greatly in their adaptation to soils and climates 
and in their retention of leaves and the coarseness of their 
stems. 

319. Adaptation and distribution. — Cowpeas are well 
adapted to a warm climate and a long growing season. 
For this reason they are better adapted to the southern 
than to the northern part of the United States. Only a 
few of the earlier varieties mature as far north as central 
Ohio. Cowpeas are a very important crop in the South, 
holding a place there similar to that held by red clover in 
the North. They will grow on almost all types of soil. 
They are more sensitive to wet soil than are the soy 
beans, but they are less affected by lack of lime, and have 
on this account a wider distribution than soy beans. 
They grow well on rather poor soils, and for this reason 
are valuable for green manure. 

320. Uses. — The cowpea is used in much the same 
way as the soy bean. In China it is even more commonly 
used in human diet than the soy bean. Like the latter, 
it may be used for the feeding of live stock and for green 
manuring. The hay, when properly made, is of equal 
feeding value with alfalfa hay, although it is not quite so 
palatable. It is an excellent soiling crop, and the combi- 
nation of cowpeas and corn, when grown for this purpose, 
yields from 10 to 25 tons of forage per acre. Like the soy 
bean, it is not a first-class pasture crop, but is sometimes 
used as pasture for sheep or hogs. 

One reason why this crop is so valuable in the South 
is its usefulness as a green manure crop in building 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND GRAIN 



315 




;-.^^^ 



up the soil fertility. When the entire crop is plowed 
under, the large growth of vegetable matter, containing 
a large amount of nitrogen, is added to the soil. It is 
also of great value in building up the soil when grown for 
hay or grain, since it 
has a rather deep root 
system and consider- 
able nitrogen is added 
to the soil if only the 
roots and stubble are 
plowed under. If the 
crop is used for hay, 
much of the vegetable 
matter finds its way 
back to the soil as 
barnyard manure. 

321. Cultural meth- 
ods. — The cultural 
methods employed in 
growing cowpeas are 
similar to those de- 
scribed for soy beans, 
except perhaps in the 
rate of seeding which 
is usually a little lighter 
for the cowpea. Wlien 
seeded in rows, 3 to 

4 pecks per acre are required, and from 4 to 8 pecks 
when drilled. In the South, and also in man}^ sections 
farther north, cowpeas are frequently seeded with other 
crops like corn, sorghum, or millet. When seeded with 
other crops they are used either for hay or for soiling. 
Cowpea hay is rather difficult to cure, but when grown 






Fig. 



115. — Cowpeas and corn make ex- 
cellent forage. 



316 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



in combination with millets or other crops, the curing 
is accomplished with less difficulty. Sometimes cow- 
peas are seeded in the corn at the time of the last cul- 
tivation, and used either lor pasture after the corn is 
harvested or plowed under the following spring for green 
manure. Usually a good crop of hay may be secured after 




Fkt. 116. — -A field of cowpeas. 

a small grain crop, if the cowpeas are seeded promptly 
after the grain is removed. Cowpeas should be cut for 
hay soon after one-third of the pods are ripe, for if cutting 
be delayed much longer than this, many of the peas will 
be lost and the stems will be less palatable. 



THE FIELD PEA 



The field pea is a native of Italy and has been grown 
in America for many years. It is sometimes known as the 
Canadian field pea, and this name is applied not because 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND GRAIN 



317 



Canada is its native home, but because it first came into 
general use there and from there was introduced into the 
United States. 

322. Description. — The field pea, Pisum sativum, is 
a summer annual, with hollow, sparingly branched stems, 
which grow from 2 to 5 feet in height. The plants in the 
early stages of growth are erect, but later become decum- 
bent unless supported. 
The leaves are large, 
from 5 to 7 inches long, 
and carried in pairs. 
Large, leafy stipules 
develop at the base of 
the leaves, and the 
midrib terminates in a 
tendril, which gives the 
plant somewhat of a 
climbing habit. The 
flowers, which are large 
and usually white or 
purple in color, are 
borne on short flower 
stalks arising from the 
axils of the leaves. The pods, which are flat and from 2 
to 4 inches long, contain several seeds, which, when ma- 
ture, are usually green in color. The leaves, stem, and 
pods are smooth, and when green are very succulent and 
are relished by all kinds of live stock. 

323. Distribution and adaptation. — Field peas are 
adapted to a cool, moist climate, and make their best 
growth during the early part of the growing season. 
They may be grown far up in Canada, and are especially 
adapted to southern Canada and the Northern States 




FiCx. 117. — Canada field peas. 



318 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

of the United States. Field peas do not do well in warm 
climates, and are not usually profitable south of the soy 
bean section. Any soil that will grow oats will also grow 
field peas. They are, however, best adapted to clay 
loams, well supplied with lime. While they grow well on 
moist soils, wet soils are unfavorable to their growth. 
They do not thrive on light, dry soils, and when grown 
on very fertile soils an excessive growth of vine is pro- 
duced, with a corresponding decrease in the yield of 
grain. 

324. Uses. — The field pea is highly prized as a feed 
for live stock. It may be used as hay, pasture, or for soil- 
ing, and the grain may be fed to all kinds of live stock. 
Usually the grain is ground and fed in combination with 
other grains. A mixture of field peas with wheat bran or 
wheat middlings makes a good feed for milch cows, growing 
hogs and sheep, because of its high protein content. In 
Canada, field peas are used by many stockmen during 
the first half of the fattening period, and this is said to be 
responsible for the superior quality of meat produced 
there. When grown for the grain, the straw, if in good 
condition, makes fair roughage for cattle and sheep. 
Field peas are usually seeded with oats or other grains 
when grown for hay, and on account of the high protein 
content of the peas, together they make a forage of high 
feeding value for all kinds of live stock. As a soiling crop, 
for which purpose it is usually seeded with oats, it becomes 
available early in the season, about the time pastures 
are declining, and affords a highly nutritious and palatable 
food. Field peas may be grown with oats for pasture, 
and may be cropped off several times during the season 
if sufficient time for new growth intervenes. As a green 
manure crop, field peas are especially valuable, since they 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND GRAIN 319 

may be grown farther north than most legumes and at the 
same time they add a large amount of nitrogen and humus 
to the soil, although they have but a short period of 
growth. 

325. Cultural methods. — The field peas are hardy 
and vigorous growers, and do not require a very 
fine or well-prepared seed bed. The seeding is some- 
times done by sowing them broadcast on the ground 
before plowing and covering them by shallow plowing. 
Better results, however, are obtained if the seed bed is 
first prepared and the seed drilled in with the grain drill. 
When seeded alone, from 2 to 3| bushels, depending upon 
the size of the peas, are required per acre. More often, 
however, they are seeded with oats, from one to two 
bushels of peas with 1 to IJ of oats making a desirable 
combination. Field peas are cool weather plants, the 
seeds germinating at low temperature, and for best results, 
seeding should be done early in the spring, usually as soon 
as the ground may be prepared. 

326. Harvesting. — When gro^\Tl for hay, the peas 
should be cut when in full bloom, but if grown with oats, 
the cutting should be done when the oat grains are in 
the dough stage. The peas, when grown alone, are 
rather difficult to cure, but when grown with oats, this 
difficulty is largely overcome. The best quality of hay 
may be obtained if it is cured in the cock, as are soy beans 
or cowpeas. When grown with oats, from 2 to 3 tons of 
hay may be expected per acre. 

When grown for grain, the harvesting may best be done 
with a mower equipped with a side delivery attachment or 
a self-rake. The grain may be thrashed with a grain 
thrasher, if the concaves are removed and the machines 
run at a low rate of speed. The yield of grain varies 



320 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

from 15 to 40 bushels per acre, the average being about 
20 bushels in sections favorable to their growth. One 
objection to a more general use of the field pea is the rela- 
tively high price of the seed, which usually commands a 
price of from 3 to 4 cents per pound. 

FIELD BEANS 

327. Field beans. — There are two important species of field 
beans grown in the United States, the common or native bean, 
Phaseolus vulgaris, and the Hma bean, Phaseolus lunatus. They 
are closely related to the soy bean and the cowpea and resemble 
them in general appearance and manner of growth. Field beans 
are annuals that grow best in cool, moist climates and on loamy 
soils. They are grown for their ripened seeds, which form a com- 
mon article of human diet. In Michigan, New York, California, 
and in some sections of other states they are quite important 
field crops and are usually grown in a regular rotation. They 
may be seeded with a drill in rows 28 or 30 inches apart or they 
may be hilled to permit of cross-cultivation. The cultivation is 
similar to that given the soy bean. In harvesting, the vines 
are cut off below the surface of the ground by means of a bean 
puller. They are then allowed to cure for a short time, after 
which they may be hauled to the barn for storage, or direct to 
the- thrasher. Sometimes they are handled in the field much 
the same as hay, being raked up with a long rake and loaded with 
a hay loader. After thrashing they are cleaned and graded for 
the market. The straw is valuable as feed for sheep or cattle. 

THE PEANUT 

328. Description. — An interesting member of the legume 
family is the peanut, Arachis hypogcea. Many persons who eat 
peanuts do not know that they are closely related to peas and 
beans and that the plants, in symbiosis with bacteria, produce 
nodules on the roots like other legumes. The peanut is a rather 
low growing annual with more or less trailing stems and with 
the unusual habit of maturing its fruit underground, differing in 
this respect from other cultivated legumes. The plants vary in 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND GRAIN 



321 



height from one to two feet, and in the erectness of the stems with 
variety, some varieties growing almost erect, while others are 
more or less prostrate. The flowers are small and yellow in 
color, and are produced on small stems growing from the axils 
of the leaves. After the bloom falls, the flower stem elongates 
and grows into the ground. The tip end soon enlarges and 
becomes the pod which 
incloses the nuts. 

329. Adaptation. — 
The peanut is a tender 
plant, and is easily killed 
by frost. It is grown suc- 
cessfully only in warm cli- 
mates with long growing 
season. In the United 
States, they are grown 
principally in Virginia and 
North Carolina, certain 
parts of Tennessee, Ar- 
kansas, and Alabama, and 
in a smaller way in almost 
all sections of the South- 
ern States. They are also 
grown extensively in 
India, Africa, and South 
America. Peanuts, since 
they produce the nuts 
underground, are best 
adapted to a loose, loamy 
soil. Peanuts of the best 
quality have light shells 
and grow in light, sandy soils. Heavy soils are not suitable for 
growing them, because the nut-bearing stems cannot penetrate 
the ground readily and because heavy soils stain the hulls. The 
best yields are produced on soils well supplied with lime, and it 
is often necessary to supply lime to those deficient in this element 
before a profitable crop can be grown. 

330. Uses. — "Fresh roasted peanuts" is a familiar phrase 
to any one who has attended a circus or a county fair, and 




Fig. 



118. — Root of peanut plant, with 
pods. 



322 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

salted peanuts are on sale in almost every confectionery store. 
Many bushels are consumed annually in these forms, and large 
amounts are used in the making of peanut oil and in the feeding 
of live stock. Peanut oil is similar to olive and cottonseed 
oils, and the making of it is an important industry in certain 
parts of Europe. Few peanuts are used in the United States in 
the production of oil, but large amounts are used annually for 
the feeding of live stock. They are readily eaten by almost all 
kinds of live stock, but are most often fed to hogs. Sometimes 
the hogs are turned into the field about the time the nuts are 
ripe and allowed to harvest the entire crop. When grown for 
the market, the vines are used for hay and as much as 2 or 3 tons 
may be secured per acre. Peanut hay is relished by all kinds of 
live stock, and makes a palatable and nutritious feed. 

331. Cultural methods. — Peanuts are planted in the spring 
as soon as the soil is well warmed up. They may be drilled in 
rows 30 to 36 inches apart, or they may be planted in hills to 
permit of cross-cultivation. Seeds of the small varieties are 
planted without removing them from the hulls, but usually those 
of the large varieties are removed from the hull before planting. 
One peck of hulled seeds or 6 pecks in the hull are required to 
plant an acre. In the large varieties from one and one-half to 
two pecks of hulled nuts will be required per acre. Cultivation 
during early growth is similar to that given peas or beans. 
When the peanuts are mature, they must be promptly harvested, 
or they may start to grow. Harvesting is done by an implement 
similar to a potato digger, which raises them from the ground. 
The vines, with the nuts attached, are then put in stacks, which 
are built around a frame work, to allow them to dry rapidly. 
After they have been in the stack for a few days, the nuts are 
then removed from the vines, either by machinery or by hand, 
and placed in large bags ready for the market or for feeding. If 
grown for market, the nuts are sorted and only the best grades 
are marketed, while the poorer grades are used for feeding. The 
yield varies from 30 to over 100 bushels per acre, 60 bushels 
being considered a good yield. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE ROOT CROPS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 

The term root crop is applied to a class of plants which 
store up during the first season the excessive nutrients not 
needed for the immediate use of the plant, in the enlarged 
tap root and base of the stem. The storing of the food 
supply is a provision by the plant for the nourishing of 
the next generation, in the case of annuals, and for the 
production of a seed stalk in the biennials. In some cases, 
the food is stored up in thickened leaves, as is the case in 
cabbage, while in kohlrabi it is stored only in the thickened 
stem. In the case of rape the excess of nutrients is stored 
in the slightly thickened leaves. While rape and kohlrabi 
are not grown for their roots, they are closely related to 
the root crops and are usually classified with them. 

With the exception of rape and sugar beets, the root 
crops discussed in this chapter do not hold an important 
place in American agriculture, but in England and on 
the Continent they are very important crops. In the 
United States the use of the silage crop largely takes the 
place occupied by root crops in the feeding of live stock 
in Europe. The fact that about 90 per cent of the root 
plants is water and also that they require a large amount of 
hand labor in their culture has been responsible for their 
unpopularity in this country. 

332. The beet family. — The beet. Beta vulgaris, has 
been developed by long selection for a special purpose 

323 



324 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

into four distinct types. They are : first, the garden beet, 
grown for table use ; second, chard, grown for its leaves, 
which are used as greens ; third, the sugar beet, grown for 
the sugar ; and fourth, mangel-wurzels, grown for feeding 
live stock. Only the last two types will be discussed in 
this book. 

THE SUGAR BEET 

333. History. — While beets have been cultivated for 
many centuries, it was not until the middle of the eight- 
eenth century that they were found to be of value as a 
source of sugar. This fact was discovered by a German 
chemist who, having analyzed several different plants, 
found that the beet contained the highest percentage of 
sugar of the plants analyzed. Many difficulties were 
encountered in the extraction of the sugar, and it was 
not until 1812 that beet sugar appeared on the market, 
and then only in small quantities. Since beet sugar 
first appeared in a commercial form, great progress has 
been made in the methods of manufacture and in the 
improvement of the beet by selection for higher sugar 
content. To-day the beet sugar business is a great in- 
dustry, employing great armies of men, women, and children, 
the product of whose labor holds a most important place 
in the feeding of the nation. Sugar beets were first in- 
troduced in the United States in 1839, but they were not 
grown successfully, and no permanent place was accorded 
them in the agriculture of this country until 1869, when 
they were first successfully grown and a sugar factory 
was established in California. 

334. Description. — The beet plant has large, broad 
leaves which spring from the crown of the enlarged tap 
root. The enlarged root, or the beet, grows almost entirely 
underground, differing in this respect from the mangel- 



THE BOOT CROPS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 325 



wurzel. The root is broadest a short distance beyond 
the rounded crown, and from this point tapers gradually 
to the tip. The flesh and stem of the beet are white. 
The sugar content varies from 5 to 20 per cent, 15 per cent 
being considered a good sugar content, and the crop is 
usually not profitable when the percentage of sugar falls 
below this amount. There can be found no more striking 
example of the possibilities 
of crop improvement by the 
method of selection, than is 
afforded by the increased 
sugar content of the beet ac- 
complished by this method. 
When the German chemist 
determined the sugar content 
of the beet in the middle of 
the eighteenth century it con- 
tained less than 6 per cent of 
sugar. Since that time, by 
the selection of plants for high 
sugar content, many crops 
now yield from 15 to 20 per 
cent. 

335. Production. — The 
world's average annual pro- 
duction of beet sugar for the years 1907-1911 was 6700 
thousand tons. Of this amount Germany's annual pro- 
duction was slightly more than 2 million tons, or almost 
one-third of the world's production ; Russia, during the 
same period, producing approximately 1400 thousand tons, 
and Austria-Hungary 1250 thousand tons, the total pro- 
duction of these three countries being more than two- 
thirds that of the entire world. The average annual pro- 




FiG. 119. — A sugar beet. 



826 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

duction of the United States for these years was 433 
thousand tons. For this five-year period the world's pro- 
duction of beet sugar was slightly less than that of cane 
sugar. 

In the United States, Colorado is the leading beet sugar 
producing state, her average annual production for the 
years 1911-1912 being 170 thousand tons; California is 
next with 150 thousand tons, and Michigan third with 
110 thousand tons. These three states during the two 
years mentioned produced over two-thirds of the total 
beet sugar production of the United States. Other 
states in which small amounts are produced are Idaho, 
Utah, Wisconsin, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 

336. Adaptation. — Sugar beets do not have a wide dis- 
tribution when compared with other farm crops. Soil 
and climate are important factors in growing beets with 
high sugar content, and consequently these factors de- 
termine to a considerable extent the area of their profitable 
culture. The beet grows best on sandy or sandy loam 
soils, but is not adapted to clays, muck, or peaty soils. 
The beet is able to resist considerably more alkali in the 
soil than most other crops and is grown in many slightly 
alkaline soils of the West. Neither soils that form a hard 
crust at the surface after a rain nor shallow soils with 
an impervious subsoil are suitable for their growth. 
The beet requires an abundance of sunshine during the 
growing season, and is therefore not adapted to localities 
where much cloudy weather prevails. 

CULTURAL METHODS 

337. Preparing the land. — Since the beet grows almost 
entirely underground, a deep seed bed is necessary. 
The soil should be plowed to a depth of 8 to 12 inches, 



THE ROOT CROPS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 327 

and sometimes, with the use of a subsoiler, it may be 
plowed to a depth of 15 inches. When soil conditions will 
permit, fall plowing is recommended. In the Western 
States beets frequently follow alfalfa, and on account of 
the deep rooting habits of the latter, this practice is de- 
sirable. The preparation of the land after plowing is 
important. A firm, fine, moist seed bed should be secured 
if possible. Handling of the soil so as to conserve moisture 
is important. No labor should be spared to obtain a seed 
bed free from weeds, as the slow growth of the plants at 
first gives the weeds an opportunity to flourish and hand 
labor is then necessary to eradicate them. 

Fertilizers and barnyard manure are frequently used on 
beet lands. Barnyard manure should be well rotted when 
applied. High grade complete fertilizers are most fre- 
quently used, although on soils that are deficient in only 
one element of plant food an application of a single element 
may then be advisable. 

338. Seeding and cultivation. — Beets are usually 
seeded solid in rows 14 to 30 inches apart. The seed of 
the beet is produced in " balls " which contain from 1 to 5 
seeds. It is impossible therefore to regulate the rate of 
seeding to get the desired number of plants. Deep plant- 
ing of the seed is likely to cause a poor stand and usually 
from J to 1| inches is deep enough if the land has been 
well prepared. The seeds germinate in from 5 to 10 days, 
but the plants grow slowly at first. Since it is impossible 
to seed at the desired rate, the plants must be thinned. 
This is done by first " blocking " with a hoe, which consists 
of cutting out the plants in the row, leaving small bunches 
8 or 10 inches apart. After blocking, further thinning is 
necessary, which consists in removing all of the plants but 
one in each bunch. Both the blocking and the further 



328 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



thinning require hand labor, as does also much of the 
cultivation during the early period of growth. Frequent 
cultivation in the early growing season is important, as 
at this time an abundant moisture supply is desirable for 
the beets. 

339. Harvesting. — The harvesting may be divided 
into four operations, namely, lifting, pulling, topping, 
and hauling. Lifting consists of plowing near the beets 
to loosen the soil so that they may easily be pulled. The 





Prllia^VjMii^BiiiB 






fli i. ■ .. , 


mamgmsmmmm 





Fig. 120. — Many foreigners, men, women, and children, are employed 
by growers of sugar beets. 



pulling is done by hand, as is also the topping, which 
consists of removing the tops at the point of the lowest 
leaf scar with a sharp knife. The part of the beet that 
grows above the ground is not desired by the sugar factory, 
since it has a low sugar content and a high percentage 
of minerals, which crystallize the sugar during the process 
of manufacture. After the tops are removed, the beets 
are then hauled to the factory, or to the point of shipment 
if the factory is some distance away. At the factory the 
sugar is extracted and placed upon the market. The 
beet pulp, that part of the beet which remains after the 



THE ROOT CROPS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 329 

sugar is extracted, is used as stock food. It contains 
only about 10 per cent of nutrients, but is very succulent 
and is highly prized for dairy cows. 

340. Seed production. — - Almost all of the seed used 
in this country is imported, less than 3 per cent being 
homegrown. The beet is a biennial, producing seed the 
second year. In countries of mild winters, it lives through 
the winter season, but where the winters are cold it is 
necessary to store them in pits or cellars and to reset 
them the following spring. The great increase of the sugar 
content of the beet has been due to the method of selecting 
the seed beets. Usually a sample is taken of the beet 
at the end of the first season's growth to determine the 
sugar content, and only those beets of high sugar content 
are used for seed production. From 1200 to 1500 pounds 
of seed may be secured from an acre of beets. 

MANGEL-WURZELS 

341. Description. — Mangel-wurzels are sometimes 
called cow beets, field beets, or mangels. There are several 
varieties of mangels, differing in size, shape, and color. 
The long and intermediate long types require a deeper soil 
than the tankard and globe types. Mangels grow best 
on deep, well-drained, fertile soil. Clay soils, because of 
their compact nature, are not well adapted to the growing 
of them. Mangels require a moist soil, but they do not 
thrive in wet soils, and they grow best where there is an 
abundance of sunshine during the growing season. In 
the United States they are grown in the North Atlantic 
States, where cereals are not profitable, and in a small way 
in New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin. 

342. Uses. — They are used almost entirely as stock 
feed, and are fed largely to cattle and sheep. In prep- 



330 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

aration for feeding, they are either cut up into small pieces 
with a corn knife, or shredded by a machine. They are 
usually fed in connection with grain or concentrates, and 
are valuable as feeds because of their succulence and their 
laxative effect. The tops of the mangels which are re- 
moved at harvest time are also used as feed. 

343. Cultural methods. — The seed bed for mangels 
must be well prepared and free from weeds. It is usually 
best when possible to plow the land deeply in the fall 
and prepare the seed bed the following spring by repeated 
disking and harrowing. The seed of mangels is slow to 
germinate and the young plants grow slowly at first, 
giving weeds, if they are present, a chance to become well 
established before the mangels are up. It is almost 
necessary, therefore, to have the field free from weeds 
before the seeding is done. The seed of mangels, like 
those of sugar beets, is produced in a '' ball " which con- 
tains from 1 to 5 seeds. It is impossible, therefore, to 
regulate the rate of seeding to get the desired distribu- 
tion of plants. This must be done by thinning when the 
plants are about 2 inches high. The seed is drilled in, 
either with a beet seed drill or with a grain drill. The rows 
should be made 28 or 30 inches apart to permit of culti- 
vation. If a grain drill is used, this can be accomplished 
by using every third drill hoe, the remainder being stopped 
up. From 8 to 12 pounds of seed per acre are required. 
The seed should be covered about one inch deep, and the 
seeding should be done as soon in the spring as the weather 
will permit. 

344. The cultivation consists in thinning to the desired 
stand, usually one plant per foot, and further cultivation 
to keep down the weeds. Mangels should be harvested as 
soon as they cease growing, which is indicated by the drop- 



THE ROOT CROPS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 331 

ping off of the outer leaves, since they are injured by severe 
frosts. They may be removed from the ground by a beet 
puller or pulled by hand after the ground has been loosened 
by the plowing of a furrow close beside the row. The 
tops are removed by twisting or cutting them off with a 
knife. Mangels should be stored soon after harvesting in a 
place where they will not freeze, a root cellar usually being 
employed for this purpose. Twenty tons per acre is 
probably an average yield, but sometimes as many as 30 
tons are secured. 

TURNIPS AND RUTABAGAS 

345. Description. — The turnip, Brassica rapa, and the 
rutabaga, Brassica campestris, are closely related plants, similar 
enough in their habits of growth and cultural requirements to be 
considered together. Like the mangel, the useful part of the 
plant is the thickened stem and root. Different varieties vary in 
color, form, and size. Rutabagas are larger than turnips and 
yield much more per acre. The most common varieties of 
Rutabagas are the Green Top and the Purple Top, and of the 
turnip, the Cow-horn, Purple Top, and White Globe are the 
most commonly grown. The flesh of the turnip is usually white, 
and that of the rutabaga is yellow. The turnip, being smaller, 
matures more quicklj^ than the rutabaga. 

346. Cultural methods. — Turnips and rutabagas do not 
require as long a growing season nor as much sunshine as beets, 
and are usually grown in cool, damp climates. They grow well 
on sandy soils, and, like mangels, do not do well on stiff clays. 
The preparation of the seed is similar to that described for man- 
gels. Rutabagas should be seeded about the same time as man- 
gels, using from 4 to 6 pounds of seed per acre. Turnips are 
usually .sown in midsummer, sometimes being preceded by an- 
other crop. Two or three pounds of seed are required per acre. 
Turnips are sometimes sown broadcast and not cultivated during 
the growing season. When seeded broadcast, about 4 pounds 
of seed are required per acre. 



332 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

347. Uses. — Turnips are grown in a small way on many 
farms for household use. In some sections of the country, they 
are grown in larger areas and are used for feeding live stock. 
Rutabagas are not as commonly grown as turnips in the United 
States, but are more common in Canada. Both turnips and 
rutabagas are quite extensively grown in England, where they 
are used as stock feed. Since turnips do not keep as long as 
rutabagas, they are usually fed first when both crops are grown. 
Sometimes these crops are not pulled and stored, but are har- 
vested by hogs which are turned into the field. The yield 
secured from turnips varies from 5 to 10 tons per acre, and from 
rutabagas, from 15 to 25 tons per acre. 

THE CARROT 

348. The carrot, Daucus carota, may be distinguished when 
growing in the field from the root crops previously described by 
its numerous, finely divided leaves. The varieties vary in size, 
shape, and color of the roots, the common colors being red, 
orange, white, and yellow. Some varieties are decidedly taper- 
ing, while others are cylindrical for a considerable part of their 
length. Carrots are adapted to a wider range of soils and climate 
than beets or rutabagas. They grow best on a deep, sandy loam, 
but are quite productive on other types of soil. The cultural 
methods are in most particulars similar to those described for 
mangels. The seed is usually of low vitality and requires a 
longer time to germinate, and the younger plants grow more 
slowly than the mangels or turnips. It is particularly important, 
therefore, that the field be free from weeds before the seeds are 
sown. Six or seven pounds of seed are required per acre, and 
the seeding should be done as soon as the soil warms up in the 
spring. 

Carrots yield from 20 to 30 tons per acre. The roots are 
handled and stored in the same manner as described for mangels. 
The top of the carrot is of special value, having higher feeding 
value and yielding more abundantly than the tops of other root 
crops. Carrots are fed to all kinds of live stock, being especially 
prized for horses. 



THE ROOT CROPS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 333 

RAPE 

Rape is a native of northern Europe, where it has been 
grown for many years as a forage crop. It was introduced 
into the United States several years ago, where it has been 
grown in a small way in several localities. It has only 
been within the past few years that its great usefulness 
has become appreciated, and it has, during this time, 
rapidly gained in popular favor and extended culture. 

349. Description. — Rape, Brassica rapus, is closely 
related to both cabbage and rutabaga, and is grown for 
the stem and leaves. The leaves of rape are similar in 
appearance to those of rutabaga, while the root system 
is very similar to that of cabbage. There are two types 
of rape, namely, annual and biennial. The annual or 
summer type is grown for the seed in England and on the 
Continent, but is not grown in the United States. The 
biennial type is a larger, ranker growing plant and is 
grown for forage. The biennial type produces seed only in 
mild climates where the plant lives through the winter. 
A small amount of seed is produced in the Pacific Coast 
States, but most of the seed used in this country is im- 
ported from England and the Continent. When grown 
for seed, the biennial type produces as much as 1000 
pounds per acre. The Dwarf Essex is the best known and 
the most important variety of the biennial or winter rape. 

350. Distribution and adaptation. — Rape is a cool 
weather plant and is especially well adapted to the northern 
part of the United States and Canada, where it is grown 
most extensively. Rape grows best in moist, fertile 
soils. It is especially adapted to soils rich in organic 
matter, and for this reason does not do well on stiff clays 
or heavy soils. It is a gross feeder, and is able to utilize a 



334 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



large amount of plant food not available to many other 
crops. The roots penetrate deeply into the soil and draw 
heavily upon the soil water, which the plant needs in 
large amounts. 

351. Uses. — In this country, rape is used almost ex- 
clusively as a pasture crop. Sometimes, however, it is 
used as a soiling crop. Rarely, if ever, is it cut and dried 
for hay. As a pasture crop, it is especially valuable be- 
cause of the large yield of forage and short season of 




Fig. 121. — Pasturing hogs on rape. 



growth. It furnishes forage when other pastures are not 
usually productive, and is high in feeding value and succu- 
lence. The yield varies from 10 to 25 tons per acre. 
Rape is especially valuable as a pasture for sheep and hogs. 
Cattle do well on it, too, but it is objectionable for milch 
cows because it imparts a flavor to the milk. It is said 
that this objection may be overcome by feeding the cows 
after milking. Sheep and cattle when pastured on it are 
subject to bloating until they become accustomed to it. 
It is advisable to allow both cattle and sheep the run of 



THE BOOT CROPS AND BELATED PBODUCTS 335 

a grass pasture in connection with the rape. This prac- 
tice, in a large measure, prevents bloating and also provides 
a variety of forage. Animals usually do not relish rape 
at first, and it requires some time for them to acquire a 
taste for it. To prevent overeating, or bloating, after 
the animals acquire a taste for it, it is best to allow them 
to have access to the rape pasture only during short 
periods at first, gradually extending the time as they 
become accustomed to it, until they are on full time. 
The largest yields are obtained and much waste is pre- 
vented if the animals are not given the run of the entire 
field, but confined to a limited area by means of movable 
fences or hurdles. The area may be extended as necessary 
by moving the fences. 

352. Cultural methods. — Rape may be seeded alone 
or in combination with other crops. When seeded alone, 
the soil should be well worked down into a fine seed bed. 
The time of seeding will depend upon the time that the 
pasture is desired. Rape is a rapid grower and is usually 
ready to pasture in from 8 to 12 weeks from the time of 
seeding. For early pasture, the seeding may be done as 
soon as the danger of frost is over. If pasture is desired 
throughout the season, it may be supplied by successive 
seedings a few weeks apart. When seeded alone, rape 
may be either broadcast or drilled in rows. When broad- 
cast, 4 or 5 pounds of seed per acre are required, and when 
drilled in rows 28 to 30 inches apart, 2 or 3 pounds per acre 
are required. Usually it is best to seed in rows. This 
method permits of cultivation during early growth, and 
also less waste occurs during pasturing, since the animals 
will follow the rows and are not likely to tramp down as 
many plants as when feeding on broadcast fields. As 
much, if not a little more, forage can be produced in rows 



836 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

than by broadcasting. When grown for soiling, it is 
always desirable to seed in rows, since cutting and har- 
vesting are more easily accomplished. 

353. Rape may follow small grains, as a catch crop. 
After the wheat, barley, rye, or oats has been removed, 
the field may be disked and seeded to rape. Seeded in 
this way, with favorable conditions of soil and cli- 
mate, a goodly amount of late pasture may be se- 
cured. In sections where there is plenty of rainfall, 
rape may be seeded in the corn at the time of the last 
cultivation, with good results. Rape may be seeded in the 
spring with the small grains, and pastured after they are 
harvested. When seeded with oats, it is usually desirable 
to broadcast the rape after the oat plants are an inch or 
two in height, since if seeded with the oats the rape will 
make enough growth to be troublesome during harvesting. 
After the oats are removed, the rape will grow rapidly, 
and may be pastured in a few weeks from the time of 
cutting the oats. Rape may be seeded with spring wheat 
in the same manner, or it may be sown broadcast on winter 
wheat after the wheat has started to grow in the spring. 
A light harrow may be used to cover the seed when it 
is sown with oats or wheat. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THE FIBER CROPS 

COTTON 

Herodotus, the Greek historian who Uved in the 
fourth century B.C. and was a noted traveler in his day, 
wrote of " tree wool " that was grown in India and used 
there for clothing. The tree wool of India, described by this 
historian, is none other than cotton which had probably 
been grown there for many years before his visit. From 
India it was introduced into Egypt and other parts of north- 
ern Africa. It is said that Alexander the Great brought it 
from India and introduced it into southern Europe. 
Columbus found cotton growing in the West Indies ; and 
when Cortez with his band invaded what is now Mexico, 
they found the natives there wearing clothes made from 
it. Records of the early explorers who visited Central 
America and Brazil and Peru in South America show that 
here, too, the cotton plant was known. It is probable 
that cotton is a native of the tropics of both hemispheres, 
and has for centuries been cultivated to some extent and 
used by the people of these countries for clothing. India 
for many centuries was the most important cotton-growing 
country, but within the last one hundred years has given 
way to the United States. Cotton does not seem to have 
been grown by the Indians that occupied the section of 

the country now renowned for its extensive cotton fields. 
z 387 



338 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



It was cultivated by the colonists at as early a date as 
1764, when eight bales of it were exported to Liverpool. 
The crop, however, was not an important one in this 
country until after the Revolutionary War. The history 
of cotton cannot well be told without recording the name 
of Eli Whitney, who in 1792 invented the cotton gin. 
Whitney's invention marked a new era in the history of 
the cotton crop. Previous to this the yield of cotton was 

small, and its use was 
limited largely because 
it was necessary to 
prepare it by hand for 
weaving. The inven- 
tion of the gin and its 
improvement in later 
years made possible 
the great cotton fields 
of to-day, which sup- 
ply the large portion 
of the civilized people 
of the world with 
cheap and serviceable 
clothing. 

354. Description. — 
The cotton plant be- 
longs to the Malvaceae or Mallow Family, which includes 
the many species of mallow and also the hollyhock and the 
Rose of Sharon, a highly prized shrub for the beautifying 
of landscapes. The cotton plant varies greatly in form 
and in its manner of growth, ranging in height from low 
growing plants to trees 20 feet high. The larger tree- 
like plants, while they produce fiber, are grown only as a 
curiosity. The cotton grown for the fiber in the southern 




Fig. 122. — A cotton plant. 



TEE FIBER CROPS 339 

part of the United States is a shrub-like plant, varying in 
height from 2 to 6 feet, the average under field conditions 
being probably 3| feet. Cotton is a perennial in the 
tropics, but in this country it is an annual. It has a 
well-developed tap root which penetrates three feet or 
more into the soil, depending upon its nature. The 
lateral or feeding branches are given off within 3 or 4 
inches of the surface and do not penetrp.te deeply; the 
plant is therefore shallow rooted when compared with 
corn or wheat. Sometimes if the soil is fully drained and 
the watertable is near the surface of the ground, the tap 
root may grow down to a point near the watertable and 
then grow horizontally. In poor soils the tap root fre- 
quently is small and is hardly distinguishable from the 
small feeding roots. 

355. The stem and leaves. — The stem is erect, with 
branches coming out from the several nodes between the 
leaf and the stem. The branches from the nodes near the 
bottom of the plant are long, but each succeeding branch 
is usually shorter, so that those near the top are quite 
short, giving the plant a somewhat conical shape. There 
are two kinds of branches, namely, the vegetative, those 
which do not produce bolls or fruit, and the fruiting 
branches. Usually two branches grow from each node 
on the main stem, although quite frequently one of them 
does not develop. The fruiting branches have few leaves, 
while the vegetative branches bear them in considerable 
numbers. The stem and branches are solid and woody 
and vary with the different varieties in their manner of 
growth. The length and character of the branches are 
factors of considerable importance in the identification 
of varieties. The leaves are arranged alternately and 
vary in size and shape even on the same plant. Those 



340 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

near the base of the plant are heart-shaped, while the ones 
near the top are deeply lobed ; usually there are three 
lobes, although five are quite common. 

356. The boll and fiber. — The flowers are large and 
conspicuous and are attached to the fruiting stems by 
short branches. The flowers have five large petals and 
five small sepals. The flowers open in the early morning 
and are at first white or creamy yellow in color, taking 
on a reddish tinge the second day and gradually becoming 
darker until they wither and the petals fall the third or 
fourth day, leaving the enlarged base of the pistil, which 
is really the seed pod, enveloped in the leafy bracts. The 
seed pod or boll develops as the plant matures, and finally 
the bracts fold backwards and the several compartments 
of the boll separate, exposing at first a mass of fiber which 
retains the shape of the compartment in which it was com- 
pressed, but in a short time dries and expands into a large, 
white, fluffy mass. This white mass is made up of many 
tiny fibers which, when separated from the seed, become the 
cotton of commerce. Each fiber is in reality a single 
elongated tube-like cell which has collapsed and become 
twisted so that it resembles a long corkscrew. The twists 
in the fibers are of great importance because they assist 
in holding the fibers together, which makes possible the 
spinning of them into long, stout threads. The number 
of twists in the fiber varies with the maturity, the immature 
fibers having only a few, while the number increases with 
the ripening of the plant, until, when fully mature, as 
many as 500 per inch have been found. The value of 
the fiber is influenced to a considerable extent by the 
number of twists it contains, since those with few twists 
do not make a strong thread, and can be used only in 
the making of cheap fabrics. The length of the fiber 



THE FIBER CROPS 341 

varies with the variety and the environment in which the 
plant was grown, but the average length of the upland 
fiber is about 1.2 inches. The value of the cotton crop is 
determined by the length, strength, fineness, and maturity 
of the fiber. The number of seeds in a boll varies from 30 
to 50. In the upland cotton they are covered with a white 
or greenish fuzz in addition to the longer fibers which 
surround them in the boll. The percentage of seed to 
lint or fiber varies considerably, but the average is approxi- 
mately 2 to 3 pounds of seed to one pound of lint. The 
legal weight per bushel of the cotton seed is 32 pounds. 

KINDS OF COTTON 

357. American upland cotton, Gossypium hirsutum. — 
This type of cotton is by far the most important in the 
United States and when a cotton planter refers to 
'' cotton " he has in mind the upland type. This type may 
be divided into two classes, namely, the short fiber varieties 
and the long fiber varieties. The important difference 
between them is the length of the fiber, that of the short 
fiber varying from J to 1| inches and the long fiber from 
1 J to If inches in length. Usually the long fiber varieties 
do not yield as much lint as the short fiber varieties, but 
the value per pound is greater. 

358. Sea island cotton, Gossypium harbadense. — This 
species of cotton differs from the upland cotton chiefly 
in the larger growth of the plant, more deeply lobed leaves, 
smaller and more pointed bolls, and black seeds covered 
with fuzz. The lint is considerably longer and is more 
valuable, being used in the making of the finest cotton 
fabrics. The yield per acre is less than the upland varieties 
and it is more difficult to pick and gin, but the difference 
in the price per pound makes it a more profitable crop 



342 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

where it can be grown. Sea island cotton requires an 
even, moist climate where frost is scarcely known. It is 
grown in the coast lands and warm, moist parts of South 
Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and in the islands off these 
coasts. 

359. Other varieties. — Besides these two important 
American grown varieties, there are the Egyptian cotton, 
which is a variety of the sea island type, and India cotton, 
which is a distinct species, both of which are of considerable 
importance in their respective countries. Neither of them 
is grown to any extent in the United States. 

MARKETING AND USES 

360. Preparation and uses of the fiber. — After the 
seed cotton is harvested, it is carried to the cotton gin. 
This machine separates the seed from the lint, which comes 
out in great sheets of billowy whiteness, and is then com- 
pressed by powerful hydraulic presses into bales weighing 
500 pounds each, 24 pounds of this weight being the 
wrapping cloth and bands around the bale. This is the 
form in which the producer sells his cotton to the local 
buyer, from whose hands it is sent to the mills either in 
this country or abroad. Before the cotton is ready to be 
spun into yarn, however, it must first go through the 
processes of cleaning, carding, and drawing. The cotton 
gin has not been able to remove all the dirt and leaves with 
which the cotton has come in contact in picking, and some- 
times it leaves a few seeds in, so after the bale is opened the 
cotton is fed between several sets of one-edged knives, 
which free the lint of a great deal of dirt but without in- 
juring the fiber. The carding machine removes still 
more of the dirt and lays the fibers in a parallel position. 
The cotton is now in the form of a loose rope or sliver about 



THE FIBER CROPS 343 

3 inches in diameter. Several slivers are then run to- 
gether and the resulting rope is drawn out until it is about 
J of an inch in diameter, and in this form it is called 
" roving." The roving, which is then wound on bobbins, 
goes to the spinning frame, there to be drawn out by 
the spindles into threads varying in fineness from the 
coarse denim or ticking warp to yarn so fine that it looks 
as though it would snap at the slightest touch. We 
need only to take a trip through one of our present day 
dry goods shops to become acquainted with the almost un- 
limited variety of different materials that can be woven 
from cotton. From the coarse unbleached muslin at 
6 cents a yard to the fine and dainty batiste or lawn at a 
dollar a yard is a wide step in quality and price. To 
fill in the gap there are hosts of ginghams, fine and coarse 
madras, dimity, and other materials in various designs, 
colors, and prices. The difference in the original fibers, 
the difference in the preparation of the fiber and in the 
spinning, weaving, and finishing, gives us a range of cotton 
fabric to fill almost any textile need. 

361. Uses of the seed. — Until recently the fiber was 
considered the only marketable part of the cotton crop. 
The seed was used for planting and the surplus was 
spread on the soil for fertilizer. Within the past few 
years, however, cotton seed has attained a considerable 
value on the market, and now the cotton grower has 
the market value of the seed to add to that of the 
fiber in determining the profit of his crop. From enough 
seed cotton to make a bale of fiber, about 1000 pounds 
or one-half ton of seed is separated by the gin. The 
seed thus separated is usually sold by the grower to the 
cotton oil mills, where the cottonseed oil is extracted. 
Before the oil is extracted, however, the seed is reginned. 



344 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

a process which removes from it the fine fuzz or hnter, 
which is used in the making of cotton batting, carpets, rope, 
or twine. About 35 or 40 pounds of Unter is removed from 
a ton of seed. The hull is then removed from the seed and 
the inside, or " meat," is heated to a high temperature for 
a short time to melt the oil, and it is then subjected to 
powerful hydraulic or steam pressure which forces out 
the oil and compresses the meat into a firm cake. About 
40 gallons of crude oil may be removed from a ton of seed. 
The oil is refined into various grades and placed directly 
upon the market or sold to manufacturers. The best 
grades of oil are used as a substitute or adulterant for 
olive oil or salad oil for culinary purposes. It is also 
used in the making of cottolene, a substitute for lard, 
and butterine, a substitute for butter. Cotton oil prod- 
ucts are wholesome and valuable for culinary purposes, 
although there now exists some prejudice against their 
use. The lower grades of cottonseed oil are used in the 
making of soap. 

362. The oil cake, which remains after the extraction 
of the oil, is highly prized as a feed for cattle and sheep. 
It contains about 35 per cent of protein and is useful to 
supply this principle in the making up of rations for live 
stock. Sometimes the seed hulls, which were removed 
before the oil is extracted, are ground up with the meal 
cake and together they are placed on the market as feeding 
stuff. The hulls are also used alone as feed or fertilizer, 
for which purposes they are not very valuable, and also in 
the making of paper. The oil is the principal and most 
valuable product of the seed. The hull, linter, and meal 
are by-products derived from the seed in the extraction 
of the oil, but are of considerable value and add greatly 
to the net profit derived from the crop. 



THE FIBER CROPS 



345 



PRODUCTION AND ADAPTATION 

363. The world's production. — The world's production 
of cotton for the five years 1907-1911 shows an average 
annual production of approximately 20 million bales, or 
about 9500 million pounds. Of this amount the United 
States produces approximately 12 million bales, India 
3 million, and Egypt about 1300 thousand bales. Much 
smaller amounts are produced in South America, princi- 

PRODUCTION OF COTTON 



1850- 1910 

MILLIONS OF BALES 
2 3 4 5 6 7 



10 



1910 
1900 
1890 
1880 
1870 
I860 
1850 



Fig. 123. 



pally in Brazil and Peru, Mexico, Turkey, and China. The 
United States is, therefore, the leading producer of cotton, 
not only producing more than any other country, but more 
than all other countries taken together. The mills which 
furnish the world with cotton fabrics draw their supply 
largely from the United States and smaller amounts from 
India, Egypt, and other countries. The United States, 
therefore, to a considerable extent, controls the cotton 
industries of the world. Much of our production is ex- 
ported to supply the foreign mills. For the five years 1907 
-1911 almost two-thirds of the cotton produced in this 
country was exported, much of it going to England where 



346 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

the making of cotton cloth is one of the important indus- 
tries. 

364. Production in the United States. — In the United 
States cotton production is confined to the Southern and 
Guh" States of southeastern United States, which is re- 
ferred to as the '' cotton belt." In this section of the coun- 
try cotton is the principal money crop and is closely 
associated with the prosperity of the farmers and the 
success of all kinds of business. Growing from a small 
industry at the time of the Revolutionary War in the 
Carolinas and Georgia, its culture has greatly spread with 
increasing acreage into the states to the west of the original 
cotton region, until now the production of cotton is 
second in value only to corn and contributes mightily 
to the nation's wealth. 

Texas devotes nearly 40 per cent of her improved land 
area to cotton, and produces more than one-fourth of 
the cotton of the country and more than 15 per cent of 
the world's crop. Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, and 
South Carolina each devote over 35 per cent of their 
improved lands to cotton, and taken together, produce 
almost one-half of the cotton of the country. Arkansas, 
Oklahoma, North Carolina, and Louisiana each devote 
considerable area to this crop, and when their production 
is added to that of the above mentioned states, together 
these nine states produce over 95 per cent of the cotton crop 
of the United States and over one-half of the cotton crop 
of the entire world. The ten-year average yield of cotton 
per acre varies from 166 pounds in Texas to 225 pounds 
in North Carolina, and the average yield per acre for all 
of the states for the same period is approximately 185 
pounds. 

365. Adaptation. — Profitable cotton production is 



THE FIBER CROPS 347 

limited by temperature, rainfall, and the character of the 
soil. Cotton is extremely sensitive to temperature, 
requiring for its best growth a long, hot growing season 
without marked changes in the temperature. The 
length of the growing season for cotton from the time it is 
planted until the crop is harvested is approximately 6 to 
7 months, during which time, for most favorable growth, 
the mean daily temperature should increase until the 
vegetative growth is made, after which time it should 
decrease, which is favorable to the production of the fruit. 
Cotton cannot be profitably grown in the northern part 
of the United States because of the short growing season 
and frequent changes of temperature. Cotton for its 
best growth requires frequent r^ins during the period of 
vegetative growth, and little or none during the fruiting 
and harvesting season, although if too much rain falls 
during the period of early growth, the plants quite fre- 
quently grow large and rank without a corresponding 
growth of fiber and seed. 

366. Probably no important crop can be grown with 
favorable results on such a large variety of soils. In 
the cotton belt it is grown on sandy clay, sandy loam, 
limestone, and black alluvial soils, and with good cultural 
methods profitable crops may be secured on any of them. 
It grows best, however, on a clay or sandy loam soil, 
rich bottom lands often producing an excess of stalk, while 
sandy types are often too greatly lacking in fertility for 
the production of a good crop. Sandy and other types 
of poor soils may be made by proper fertilization to yield a 
very profitable crop. So completely has the growing 
of the cotton absorbed the attention of the grower that 
little else has been grown. Within recent years, how- 
ever, injury to the soil resulting from continuous cropping 



348 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

has been made plain by lower yields and depleted soils. 
Rotations are now being practiced more generally, the 
growing of live stock is becoming more important, and the 
use of barnyard manure is increasing, all of which will in 
time show a marked influence upon the yields obtained. 
Commercial fertilizers are more commonly used in the 
South than in any other section of the country. They 
have made possible the growing of profitable crops of 
cotton on naturally poor soils, and have been used with 
success on almost all types of soil, resulting in larger yields 
of cotton. On soils depleted of humus and low in nitrogen, 
fertilizers having a high percentage of nitrogen give the 
best results. Both potash and phosphoric acid are 
applied with profit on most soils, especially when used in 
connection with barnyard manure. 

METHODS OF CULTURE 

367. Preparing the land. — The time of plowing the 
land for cotton depends largely upon the system of crop 
rotation that is in practice. In many cases, cotton follows 
cotton, which means that the preparation of the land for 
the next year's crop consists first of disposing of the stalks 
of the preceding crop. This is usually done in one of 
two ways : either they are raked down and burned or they 
are cut up with the stalk cutter and plowed under. 
The latter method is to be recommended, since to burn 
them is to rob the soil of humus. Sometimes a catch 
crop of vetch or bur clover is seeded in the fall and is 
plowed under early in the spring. When a rotation of 
crops is practiced, the time of plowing will depend upon 
the preceding crop and upon the nature of the soil. Fall, 
winter, or spring plowing may be practiced, and, in a 
general way, the same general principles must be con- 



THE FIBER CROPS 349 

sidered that were discussed in the preparation of land for 
corn. Fall plowing when it can be practiced is considered 
by many growers to be the best practice, especially when 
stalks from the preceding crop are to be plowed under. A 
common method of plowing for cotton is that of " bedding " 
the field, which is done by throwing together several fur- 
rows, making narrow beds two or three feet wide, with a 
narrow strip of unplowed land between the beds. This 
method is in common practice where the land is poorly 
drained and the furrows at either side of the bed serve to 
carry off the surplus of water. Deep plowing, when it can 
be practiced, is to be recommended, since it provides a 
larger and more favorable area for the roots. When 
commercial fertilizers are used, they may be applied broad- 
cast before plowing or may be placed in the shallow 
furrow before bedding. Sometimes the fertilizer is not 
applied until after the land is plowed ; but when this is 
done, it should be applied a week or 10 days before the 
seed is sown, since some of the fertilizers injure the seed if 
applied with it. The preparation of the land after 
plowing should be such as to make a finely pulverized 
but compact seed bed. 

368. Planting and cultivation. — Cotton is planted in 
rows varying in width from 3 to 5 feet, depending upon 
the fertility of the soil and upon the variety grown. 
Small growing varieties may be planted more closely 
than large, rank growing plants, and the rows may be 
closer together on fertile than on poor soils. On soils of 
medium fertility, with medium sized plants, the rows are 
commonly 4 feet apart. The seeds may be planted in 
hills or scattered along in a row, the latter method being 
the more common practice. The seed is planted with a 
one-row planter, at the rate of from 1 to IJ bushels per 



350 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

acre. If all the seeds grow, the plants are much too thick 
and must be thinned out. The thinning is done after the 
plants are a few inches high by hoeing out the surplus and 
leaving plants 12 or 16 inches apart in the row. Cultiva- 
tion may be done at first with a light harrow or weeder 
when the plants are a few inches in height. These im- 
plements may drag out a few plants, but if thinning is 
delayed until after such cultivation has been done, the 
injury to the plants is not great. Further cultivation 
during the remainder of the growing season should be 
frequent and shallow. This may be done with cultivators 
similar to those used in the cultivation of corn, the single 
cultivators being commonly employed. 

369. Harvesting. — Most of the cotton crop is har- 
vested by hand. Men, women, and children pass down the 
rows and pick off the fiber in which the seeds remain, 
placing it in bags or baskets which they carry with them. 
When the bags are full they are emptied into a wagon 
which hauls the loose cotton to the gin. Many attempts 
have been made to build machines to pick the cotton, 
some of which have been successful, but their use has not 
become general. The difficulty with machine harvesters 
is that they pick leaves and trash along with the cotton. 
Then, too, the cotton does not all ripen at the same time, 
and in order to gather it in the best condition, it is neces- 
sary to make two or three pickings. The machine in 
passing over the field during the first picking may destroy 
or damage much of that which is not ripe. Usually the 
first picking is a light one, the bulk of the crop being 
gathered at the second picking. Hand picking, while 
expensive, enables the grower to gather the crop as it 
ripens, and also to keep the fiber free from leaves and 
trash. 



THE FIBER CROPS 351 

370. Insects and diseases, — The cotton grower must 
contend with numerous injurious insects and diseases. The 
most common and injurious insects are the boll weevil and the 
boll worm, which do considerable damage to the crop in many 
sections of the cotton region. The boll weevil is a small insect, 
about one-half inch long, which lays its eggs in the bolls soon 
after the blossoms fall. The larvae which hatch from them eat 
out the center of the boll. The most effective means now known 
of combating them is the removal of the affected bolls and their 
destruction, and the growing of early varieties which mature 
before the insects become numerous. 

The cotton boll worm is closely related to the corn ear worm, 
and affects the cotton plant by eating the leaves and the im- 
mature seeds in the boll. The same methods as were recom- 
mended for the control of the boll weevil may be employed to 
control the boll worm. Sometimes arsenical poisons may be 
sprayed on the affected plants with good results. The important 
diseases of cotton are the wilt and the root rot. Rotation of 
crops is recommended as the most effective means of controlling 
them. 

FLAX 

Flax culture begins with the recorded history of the 
Egyptians and the Hebrews, who used this fiber in the 
making of clothing, many years before the dawn of the 
Christian era. So far as is known, its original home was 
somewhere in the eastern Mediterranean country, whence 
it was introduced into Asia and Europe and later was 
brought to the United States. For many years it was 
grown only for the fiber, but more recently the value of 
the seed as a source of oil has brought about the rapid 
increase of its culture in many places for this purpose. 

371. Description. — Flax, Linum usitatissimum, be- 
longs to the Linacese or Flax family, of which it is the 
most important species. One or two other species are 
cultivated to a small extent in some parts of the world, 
and several grow wild both in America and Europe. Flax 



352 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



is an annual with a single upright stem, which branches 
freely when the plants are seeded thinly, but slightly or 
not at all when they grow close together. The plant has a 
long, fine tap root, with a few small lateral branches. It 

grows from IJ to 3 
feet in height, depend- 
ing upon the variety 
and upon the environ- 
ment in which it grows. 
The leaves are simple 
and almost sessile and 
arranged alternately. 
The flowers are rather 
large and light blue in 
color. The seed pod 
is usually ten-seeded, 
the seeds are lens- 
shaped, with a smooth, 
polished surface, and 
vary from yellow to 
brown in color. The 
stem of flax is made 
up of three parts, 
namely, the bark, com- 
posed of several lay- 
ers, the wood, and the 
pith. 

372. Uses of flax fiber. — In preparing the flax fiber 
for use, the plant is first freed from the seed capsules, 
after which the bast, that part of the bark used for the 
fiber, must be separated from the central woody portion 
of the stem by a process, the first step of which is called 
" retting." There are two principal methods employed, 




Fig. 124. — Seed pods of flax. 



THE FIBER CROPS 



353 



namely, cold water retting and dew retting, the latter 
being the one most commonly used. In dew retting 
the straw is spread out on the ground and exposed to 
the weather for several weeks. Next it is collected 
and subjected to the 
'' breaking " process, 
which is the removing 
of the fiber from the 
wood. The fiber thus 
removed is freed from 
the rest of the bark 
and adherent parts of 
the wood by '' scutch- 
ing " or beating with 
paddles. The final 
process is the '' hack- 
ling" or combing, 
which separates the 
fibers into the '' flax 
line" which is the long 
and valuable fiber, and 
the '' tow," the short 
tangled fibers used in 
the weaving of coarse 

linen. The fiber is then packed in bales, in which shape 
it goes to the mill. 

Fabrics made from flax are characterized by snowy 
whiteness, when freed from impurities, a luster similar to 
that of silk, and great strength or tenacity. As has been 
mentioned before, linen is one of the oldest textiles of which 
we know, having been used by the ancient Egyptians for 
the wrappings of mummies and for the making of priests' 
garments. Linen of good quality becomes more beautiful 
2a 




Fig. 125. — A bundle of flax and types of 
fiber. 



354 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

with laundering, and on account of the length of the fiber, 
which is commonly from 10 to 12 inches, it does not 
become fuzzy with wear as do cotton materials. 

373. Use of flax seed. — Flax seed has a large, oily 
embryo, which yields from 30 to 38 pounds of oil per 100 
pounds of seed. The removing of the oil is done by crushing 
the seed and heating it to 165° F. and either subjecting it 
to high pressure or treating it with naphtha to extract the 
oil. The oil is known on the market as linseed oil, and is 
used largely for paints and varnishes, for which purpose 
it is highly prized on account of its quick drying proper- 
ties. It is also used in making printer's ink and in the 
manufacture of a substitute for rubber. 

The part of the seed remaining behind after the removal 
of the oil is linseed meal, which is highly prized as stock 
food because of its high protein content, which is from 20 
to 25 per cent. 

374. Production and distribution. — Flax is grown to 
some extent in almost all agricultural countries. Russia 
produces approximately two-thirds of the world's crop 
of fiber, while Austria-Hungary, France, Belgium, and the 
Netherlands are responsible for almost all of the remaining 
third of the world's crop. In the production of flax seed, 
Argentina in South America ranks first, producing about 
one-third, and the United States ranks second, producing 
about one-fifth of the world's crop. The total production 
for the world is about 100 million bushels of seed and 1500 
million pounds of fiber. 

In the United States, North Dakota produces about one- 
half of the total crop, while Minnesota, South Dakota, 
and Montana produce the greater part of the remainder 
of the crop. Very little flax is grown in the United States 
for fiber, it being grown for seed almost exclusively. The 



THE FIBER CROPS 355 

yield of seed per acre varies from 3 to 12 bushels, the aver- 
age probably being about 8 to 10 bushels. The price per 
bushel varies from one to two dollars, the average being 
about $1.50. 

375. Adaptation. — Flax grows well on almost all types 
of soil, but sandy loams or loose types produce the best 
yields. So far as climate is concerned, flax may be grown 
for seed in any place that produces wheat successfully. 
When grown for fiber, the best results are obtained in 
cool, moist climates. In the United States, since flax is 
grown for the seed alone, it is handled much like a grain 
crop. It is usually of greater importance in new agri- 
cultural sections, and often is the first crop seeded on a 
newly plowed prairie. It is one of the best crops with 
which to break in new ground, and is at the same time 
adapted to the extensive cultivation necessarily practiced 
in these sections. 

376. Cultural methods. — The usual practice of pre- 
paring a prairie sod for flax is to give it a shallow plowing 
either in the fall or early spring and work it down with the 
roller and harrow. Sometimes when large acreages are 
to be seeded in a short time, the seeding is done with little 
or no preparation of the soil, other than plowing. 

The usual method of sowing the seed is with a grain 
drill, which is so regulated as to place the seed about 1 inch 
deep. From 2 to 3 pecks of seed are required per acre 
when the flax is grown for the seed, and from 6 to 8 
pecks when it is grown for the fiber. A thin rate of seeding 
encourages the plants to branch freely, which favors a 
large yield of seed, while a thick rate permits little or no 
branching and causes the production of long, straight 
stems, which yield a long fiber. The flax seed may be 
sown as soon as the danger of frost is over in the spring. 



356 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

The length of the growing season is from 90 to 100 days. 
Flax is attacked by a wilt fungus which can be controlled 
to considerable extent by treating the seed before planting 
with formaldehyde in the same manner which was rec- 
ommended for treating the seed wheat for smut. 

Flax when grown for seed is harvested with a grain 
binder and thrashed with a grain thrashing machine. 
The harvesting, therefore, is very similar to that of wheat 
or oats. When grown for the fiber, the plants are pulled 
by hand, tied into small bundles, and put into the shock 
to cure. The seed is thrashed from the bundles without 
injuring the straw by rubbing or by special machinery. 

HEMP 

377. Hemp, Cannabis sativa, is a member of the Moraceae or 
Mulberry family and is therefore closely related to the hop and 
osage orange, which are also members of this family. Hemp is a 
large, rank growing, annual plant, bearing the pistillate and 
staminate flowers on separate plants. The pistillate or seed- 
bearing plants are more branched and do not produce as desirable 
fiber as the staminate or pollen-producing plants. The plants 
grow from 10 to 15 feet in height under favorable conditions, and 
mature seed in from 100 to 110 days. Hemp thrives best in 
temperate climates and may be grown on any soil adapted to the 
growing of corn. The seed is sown just before corn planting, 
usually broadcast or drilled in with a grain drill, at the rate of 
4 to 5 pecks per acre. When seeded in this way, no cultivation is 
necessary, as the plants grow rapidly and give the weeds little 
chance to compete with them. In fact, in fields known to be 
very badly infested with weeds sometimes the crop is seeded for 
several successive years to smother them out, which it does very 
eiTectively. The crop may be cut with a mower or self -rake when 
the plants are not too large, but tall plants must be cut by hand as 
corn is harvested, because they are too large and woody for the 
mower. After cutting, the hemp is allowed to lie on the ground 
for some time in order to separate the fiber from the woody stem. 



THE FIBER CROPS 357 

The fiber is removed from the stem and handled in much the 
same way as was explained in the case of flax. In many parts of 
Europe the crop is grown for both seed and fiber. From 10 to 
25 bushels of seed may be grown per acre. It contains from 30 
to 35 per cent of oil which is used in paint, varnishes, and for 
culinary purposes. The yield of fiber may be from 500 to 1600 
pounds per acre, and it is valuable for making coarse cloth, ropes, 
twines and carpet warp. Hemp is not grown extensively in the 
United States, the principal regions of production here being the 
blue-grass region of Kentucky and Tennessee and certain parts 
of New York, Nebraska, and Iowa. In central and western 
Asia, and in many parts of Europe, the crop is an important one. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE POTATO 

By J. H. GouRLEY 
New Hampshire Agricultural College 

The " Irish " potato is one of the few valuable crops 
used for human food of which America can claim to be 
the original home. In the valleys of the mountains of 
Chili, South America, the potato was found growing wild 
by the earliest travelers to the new world. They found 
the natives cultivating it so generally that it seemed to 
be an old crop. These early travelers carried some of 
the tubers back to Spain and from there the potato was 
taken to Italy. Here it was groAvn rather commonly 
and found its way northward into the Netherlands. It 
was probably first grown in North America in what is 
now Virginia and North Carolina during the latter part 
of the sixteenth century. Between 1580 and 1590 the 
potato was introduced into Great Britain from Virginia 
by Sir Thomas Herriot, a companion of Sir Walter Raleigh. 
Potatoes were first planted in Ireland near Cork. In the 
year 1846 there was a failure of the potato crop in Ireland 
which caused great suffering, and many people left the 
country and came to America, to such an extent were they 
depending upon it for food. 

378. Production. — At present the United States is 
far behind the countries of Europe in the production per 
acre. The United States has an average yield per acre 

358 



THE POTATO 359 

of 89.8 bushels, Germany 197.3 bushels, and Great Britain 
186.4 bushels. In the United States potatoes rank fourth 
in the number of bushels produced among the staple 
crops, corn being first, oats second, and wheat third. The 
states ranking the highest in gross yield of potatoes given 
in order of production are New York, Michigan, Maine, 
Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania. The states having the 
highest average yield per acre given in order of priority 
are : Maine, 225 bushels per acre ; Idaho, 200 bushels ; 
Montana, 180 bushels ; Nevada, 180 bushels ; Utah, 180 
bushels ; Washington, 170 bushels ; Colorado, 160 bushels. 
379. Description. — Naturally the potato is an annual 
plant ; it springs up from a seed, grows, blooms and 
produces seed and dies in one season. Under cultivation, 
however, it has become a perennial plant by means of the 
tubers. The flowers vary in color, some being white and 
others purple. Some varieties seldom bloom, and those 
which do bloom rather freely rarely set fruit in the eastern 
and central part of the United States. In some sections, 
however, these same varieties set fruit quite commonly. 
The true fruit, or seed ball as it is often called, is round 
and about the size of a ground cherry. When cut open 
it is found to be full of seeds and has a structure similar 
to a tomato. The part which we eat is simply an enlarged 
underground stem. It does not grow on the true roots 
but on the end of a stolon ; rootlets are never found com- 
ing from a tuber or from the stolon which bears it. Every 
tuber has a number of ^' eyes " on the surface, some 
varieties having a much larger number than others. In 
some varieties they are shallow, in others deep, and in all 
cases they are much more numerous at the '^ bud end " 
than where the stolon is attached to the tuber. If we 
examine them closely, we will see that they are arranged 



360 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

in a spiral form. Now if we can imagine this tuber elon- 
gated or drawn out, these eyes would simply represent buds 
on an underground stem, each of which could send up a 
shoot or plant. Practically all of the higher plants have a 
means of storing up food in some place in their tissues, which 
can be used at a time when they need a surplus to start 
them into growth from a dormant condition. Sometimes 
it is in the form of starch, or it may be sugar or oil. In 
the apple tree this food is found about each bud, in the 
currant considerable food is stored in the roots ; but 
in the potato a large amount of starch is stored in an 
underground stem which becomes greatly enlarged — the 
tuber. The amount of starch varies from 12 per cent to 
20 per cent in most commercial varieties. 

CULTURAL METHODS 

380. Soil. — The prime essential of a potato soil is to 
have it well drained. The loose and mellow condition of 
the soil is of greater importance with this crop than a 
large amount of native fertility. While the potato can 
be grown on a variety of soils with success, the medium 
light soils are usually best. A gravelly or sandy loam well 
filled with humus is ideal because it affords good drainage 
and yet supplies a liberal amount of moisture which is 
necessary for a large crop. A light, sandy soil is usually 
preferred for early potatoes. If a soil is not naturally 
well drained, then tiling should be put in before maximum 
results can be expected. When water stands for a part 
of the growing season in pockets in the soil, many of the 
plants will die out. This can be seen in the irrigated 
sections in the west. 

381. Rotation. — Because of the serious diseases and 
insects which attack the potato, it is well to practice a 



THE POTATO 361 

systematic rotation of crops. Potatoes following clover 
is usually considered an advantageous rotation, because, 
with this practice, the soil not only has a good supply of 
humus but an additional supply of nitrogen which can be 
utilized. An old sod turned under may cause consider- 
able trouble from white grubs, which sometimes practically 
destroy a potato crop ; but when a short rotation is prac- 
ticed, this trouble is not so likely to become serious. Pota- 
toes, wheat, and clover ; or potatoes, strawberries, and 
clover will make a good three or four year rotation. When 
planted on sod land, the plowing should be done in the 
fall and the land well worked down in the spring with a 
disk and smoothing harrow before planting. 

382. Planting the seed. — The time of planting varies 
in different sections of the country. Generally the seed 
should be planted by May 20 for best results ; however, 
in some sections it is June 20 before the late potatoes 
are planted. 

383. Sun sprouting. — It is often difficult to keep pota- 
toes from sprouting badly and shrinking in early spring 
before time for planting. This problem can often be 
solved by rubbing off all white sprouts and placing the 
potatoes in the sunlight for two or three weeks before 
planting. They can be spread out on the barn floor, or 
shelves can be built upon the south side of the barn or other 
building for containing them, and they may then be 
spread out in a single layer and left exposed to the light 
until they are wanted for planting. A short green sprout 
will develop in place of the long white ones usually seen in 
the cellar. The potato thus treated can be planted as 
late as the first of July and yet a good crop may be secured. 
It is desirable to select the seed stock for the following 
season from this late planted crop, which, however, would 



362 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

not need to be sun sprouted before planting. The tubers 
which have been sun sprouted are usually cut with one 
sprout to a piece ; the growth is very rapid and a higher 
percentage of stand is secured than from unsprouted seed. 
The tubers thus grown keep better, shrink less, and are 
much slower in sending out the white sprouts than ordi- 
nary seed. 

384. Northern grown seed. — • While it is often stated 
that northern grown seed is much superior to '' home " 
grown seed or that grown south of a given point, yet a 
number of experiments have not shown this to be the 
case. If the seed of a given variety is of equal maturity, 
free from disease, and of equal quality in other respects, 
little difference in results will be noticed. 

385. Rate of planting. — • Various quantities of seed are 
used per acre, depending on the distance of planting, 
somewhat on the variety in question, and method of cut- 
ting the seed. Twelve to fourteen bushels of seed is a 
common quantity used. Medium size tubers are selected 
and cut two eyes to the piece. Seed pieces are dropped 
every twelve to fifteen inches in the row, and the rows 
thirty-three to thirty-six inches apart. In some sections 
they are planted in hills and cultivated both ways. The 
seed pieces are covered three to four inches deep. 

386. Fertilizers. — In order to secure the largest possi- 
ble yield of any crop, there should at all times be a suffi- 
cient quantity of moisture and plant food. It is as great a 
disadvantage to a plant to be stunted at any period of its 
growth as it is to an animal. But the amount of artificial 
plant food which a crop requires can only be determined 
by experimenting on every farm. We know that potatoes 
use a large amount of potash in growing, but many soils 
(clay soils especially) are oftentimes so rich in potash 



THE POTATO 363 

that very little or none need be supplied artificially. 
While an excess of nitrogen may cause the potatoes to 
'' run to tops/' and set few tubers, yet some nitrogen can 
usually be used to advantage. Soils very often contain 
less available phosphoric acid than is necessary for 
the fullest returns in potatoes, and phosphoric acid is 
usually supplied in some form. Larger returns over a 
series of years are more likely to be secured by using a 
complete fertilizer than by using any one or two of the 
elements separately. A fertilizer which will analyze 
about 4 per cent of nitrogen, 6 per cent of phosphoric 
acid, and 10 per cent of potash is one that is commonly 
used in large potato growing districts. The per cent of 
potash on many soils could be reduced to 6 to 8 per cent. 

387. Varieties. — The selection of varieties of all kinds 
of fruits and vegetables is always of interest to lovers of 
plants, and is a question of great importance. However, 
as late as 1771 there were only two varieties of potatoes 
recorded, one white and one red variety. But the multi- 
plication of varieties in recent years has been enormous, 
and there have been many hundreds of varieties on the 
market. There are more than one thousand named va- 
rieties on the market at the present time. Many of these 
have proved inferior to our standard sorts and many others 
have proven to be old varieties renamed. 

Each locality must test the standard varieties and decide 
which will do best under its conditions. Because a variety 
does well in Maine is no proof that it will do well in Illinois 
or Colorado, neither does the success of a variety on a clay 
loam indicate positively what it will do on a sandy or 
muck soil on an adjoining farm. The confusion which 
often occurs regarding varieties of potatoes in many cases 
is caused by the fact that there are several distinct types 



364 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



or groups of potatoes, and in each group there are many 
varieties which very closely resemble one another. The 
following types are among the best known : Early Ohio 
type, including Early Ohio, Early Six Weeks, Acme, and 
Ohio Junior : Early Rose type, including Early Rose, 
Northern Star, Early Fortune, Bovee, Sensation, Algoma, 
Early Breakfast, and Early Michigan. Green Mountain 
type, including Green Mountain, Gold Coin, Uncle Sam, 
and Happy Medium. Rural New Yorker type, including 




Fig. 126. — Harvesting potatoes in Ohio. 

Rural New Yorker, Carman No. 3, Sir Walter Raleigh, 
Banner, President Roosevelt, and Prosperity. A few of 
the well-known varieties which do well in some sections 
of the United States are given in about the order of their 
maturity : Early Petosky, Irish Cobbler, Bliss Triumph, 
Early Ohio, Early Rose, Early Thoroughbred, Bovee, 
Algoma, Burbank, Green Mountain, Vermont Gold Coin, 
Carman No. 3, Sir Walter Raleigh, Rural New Yorker, 
White Pearl, and Peachblow. 

388. Much is said about the " running out " of varieties 



THE POTATO 



365 



and many persons find an all sufficient excuse in that idea 
for their failures. The better growers, however, believe 
that good culture and care of the seed stock will keep 
varieties in a productive state over many years. In some 
sections the ravages of disease are so severe that it is 
almost impossible for growers to grow their own seed, but 



i^oiS 










':-m 


■^R^ 




'^M - 


II 




^K* 1 


,,,.,i 


Ip. 


■*■ 1 -W t,. /\^ 


1^^ . 9 




m 


^^^JH 








^^ 


lH^^^^l^j- J «~ nii^^fcwIl^^B^^M 


** .* -A 


n 



Fig. 127. — A potato digger. 



each year they must send for seed to some section which is 
known to be free from the trouble. Varieties which at 
one time flourished in the East and later failed to produce 
good crops, supposedly because they had " run out," are 
now among the most prolific sorts in the regions farther 
West. 



366 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

389. Harvesting. — Because the potato is likely to be 
injured by frost the crop should be dug and stored before 
heavy freezes. Ordinarily late potatoes are dry w^hen the 
vines die down, indicating maturity of the tubers. How- 
ever, when the vines have died down as a result of late 
blight, it is well to wait some ten days before digging, as 
the chances of rot in storage are thereby greatly lessened. 
Potatoes should be dug when dry and placed in storage at 
once. In a small way potatoes are dug with a fork or 
potato hook, but on a larger scale the potato digger drawn 
by horse power is commonly used. The potato box or 
crate is largely used at present to replace the rougher 
handling in bulk by pouring from baskets into the wagon 
bed and shoveling into the cellar or storage. 

390. Storage. — Potatoes freeze easily and the tem- 
perature in storage should never reach the freezing point. 
While 34° F. is recommended as a safe storage temperature 
the tubers will have a better cooking quality if stored at a 
temperature somewhat higher, ranging from 35° to 40° F. 

Ordinary cellars are usually utilized for storage. Where 
this is done, it is well to construct a flue for conducting air 
into the cellar from the outside at the level of the cellar 
floor and have an opening at the top of the cellar to allow 
the warm air, laden with gases and impurities, to pass off. 
The cellar should be kept dark and some means of arti- 
ficial heat should be provided in case there is danger of 
freezing. The loss in storage from fall till April or May 
will vary from 5 to 12 per cent, 10 or 12 per cent being 
common. This loss is due to loss of moisture and respira- 
tion. If the potatoes are diseased, the loss will be in excess 
of this figure. 

391. Insects. — The Colorado beetle {Leptinotarsa decem- 
lineata) which is the famihar striped "potato bug," is the 



THE POTATO 367 

best known and probably the most troublesome of the potato 
insects. Many of our most destructive insects have been im- 
ported from other countries, but this one is a native of the 
Rocky Mountain region. It feeds on the buffalo bur in its 
native, wild state, but it also attacks a number of our garden 
crops, among which are the tomato, egg plant, tobacco, and 
pepper, as well as potatoes. The eggs are bright yellow and are 
laid in clusters on the potato leaf. The eggs hatch and the young 
larvas begin feeding at once on the leaves, and may entirely 
devour them if not checked by some poison. The leaves should 
be entirely coated with the spray as soon as the eggs hatch, as 
the younger the bugs are the more easily they are killed. Arse- 
nate of lead is used in the proportion of 3| to 4 pounds to 50 
gallons of water, or where it is preferable, about \ pound of Paris 
green to 50 gallons of water may be used. Bordeaux mixture is 
also offensive to them and commonly used in conjunction with 
these poisons, with the double purpose of controlling certain 
diseases and assisting in combating the potato beetle and also 
the flea beetle. It requires about 100 gallons of the spray per 
acre. It is applied by a spray machine drawn by horsepower, or 
a hand sprayer may be used successfully on small patches. 

392. The Flea Beetle {Crepidodera cucumeris). — This tiny 
flea-like beetle is seen on tomatoes and potatoes when they are 
small and tender and easily injured. Instead of eating the edges 
of the leaves, as the potato beetle does, they eat them full of 
holes and may do as much injury as the Colorado beetle. While 
it is difficult to control them, yet Bordeaux mixture, to which 
some arsenate of lead has been added, forms a thin plaster over 
the leaves which is not to their liking and thus causes them to 
seek other food. They are much worse where potatoes are 
grown more than one year in succession on the same ground, so 
for this reason rotation of crops is desirable. 

393. The June Beetle (Lachnosterna spp.). — The common 
white grubs or larvae of the May beetles or June bugs are one of 
the most common pests in field and garden. They are troublesome 
on newly plowed sod lands, especially when the land had been in 
grass for a number of years. It is not uncommon to find the 
potato crop practically ruined under such conditions. They are 
difficult to control, and rotation of crops, late fall and early 
spring plowing, allowing swine to work over the land, and allow- 



368 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

ing chickens to run on a newly plowed field, are means used to 
control them. 

DISEASES 

394. Early Blight (Alternaria solani). — This is an old dis- 
ease which has probably been more or less destructive for many 
years. It begins to make its appearance on the plants about the 
time they are in blossom or sometimes when the plants are quite 
small. It is distinguished by small round grayish patches which 
later turn brown. The spots increase in size and many of them 
may coalesce and form large irregular patches. The punctures 
made by the flea beetles and other insects seem to favor the 
entrance of the fungus into the tissues of the plant. While the 
disease is not followed by the rotting of the tubers, it decreases the 
yield greatly. Some seasons it lessens the yield by many millions 
of bushels. 

395. Late Blight {Phytophthora infestans). — This disease has 
proved to be one of the most destructive and widespread of all 
diseases of the potato. It is found in all countries of the world 
where the potato is grown. The disease appears as an irregular 
dead area on any portion of the leaf, but commonly it first appears 
at the tip or on the margins of the leaf. There is often a notice- 
able and offensive odor from a field affected with the blight, 
especially if the air is filled with moisture. In order to control 
the disease the plant should be sprayed thoroughly with Bor- 
deaux mixture. 1 Spraying should be begun when the plants are 
six to eight inches high and repeated every ten days to two weeks 
throughout the season, making in all about five applications. 

396. Scab (Oospora scabies). — This disease is quite com- 
mon in all potato growing sections. The irregular, cankered- 
looking spots which may more or less cover the tubers are famil- 
liar to every one who has ever grown potatoes. This disease is 
known to live over in the soil for several years and a change of 
soil is necessary ; no potato crop following for four or five years 
would be advisable. It is not difficult to keep this trouble in 
check if precautions regarding seed and rotation are taken each 
year. The seed should be treated before planting, with one pint 

^ This spray is prepared by dissolving 4 lbs. copper sulphate and 4 lbs. 
stone lime and adding water to make 50 gal. 



THE POTATO 369 

of corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury) in thirty gallons 
of water. Place the potatoes in a gunny sack and suspend in the 
solution for two hours. Then empty them out on the floor or in 
the sun to dry before planting. Various methods are used for 
treatment, but the above is satisfactory and possibly as easily 
done as any. 

397. Dry Rot (Fusarium oxysporium) is widespread over the 
potato regions of this country and Europe. It is a fungous dis- 
ease which attacks the base of the plant, penetrating into the 
roots and tubers and causing the final wilting and early maturity 
of the plant. It causes a further development of dry rot in 
storage. There is a tip burn and yellowing of the leaves, to- 
gether with a rolling up of the foliage. Affected tubers can be 
determined by cutting off the stem end slightly and observing a 
browned ring near the skin and occasionally a browning going 
entirely through the tuber. Spraying will not control the disease, 
but care in selecting disease-free seed and planting on soils which 
have not become inoculated with the disease will be the proper 
precautions to keep it under control. 



2b 



CHAPTER XXI 

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 

Hay and pasture crops are usually considered by the 
general farmer, especially in the corn belt and Southern 
States, as holding a place of minor importance to the 
cereals or special money crops. In some sections of the 
country hay is the chief money crop, but even where it is 
depended upon for a large part of the farm income, it 
seldom receives the attention accorded other money crops. 
Few farmers, even in the hay growing sections of the coun- 
try, have attempted to increase the yield of their meadows 
and pastures by methods similar to those employed to 
increase the yield of grains. Fertilizers and manures 
are rarely applied to meadows or pastures, the general 
opinion prevailing that a larger return may' be received 
from fertilizers when they are used in connection with 
other crops. This opinion, however, has not been verified 
by experiments. Based upon experiments at the Penn- 
sylvania Station, Professor Hunt makes the statement 
that the same amount of money used in the purchase of 
fertilizers for grass lands will bring a greater profit than 
when applied to corn or wheat, and at the same time will 
make the soil more productive for succeeding crops. 
Experiments conducted at other stations and the experi- 
ence of progressive farmers show that meadows and pas- 
tures will respond to fertilization and improved methods 
of culture quite as readily as will general field crops. 

370 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 371 

Many meadows and pastures can, by improvement in the 
methods of culture, and the appHcation of fertihzers 
and manure, be made to yield twofold. Pastures that 
furnish but a scanty growth of forage can be made to 
furnish an abundance of grazing for twice the number of 
animals they now support. Many fields that are now 
devoted to the cereals, especially in sections of poorer 
types of soils, could be made to produce grass more 
profitably. 

398. The rotation. — Whether or not meadows or 
pastures can be grown as regular crops in rotation will 
depend largely upon the topography of the country and 
the systems of farming followed. Where very extensive 
systems of farming are practiced, hay and pasture crops 
are usually grown in continuous culture, being the last 
crops to take a place in the rotation. In rolling or hilly 
sections of the country, the land that is too steep or rough 
to put under the plow is devoted to grass. When land is 
so steep that serious loss is likely to occur by washing if it 
is plowed, continuous culture is to be recommended. But 
where land can be cultivated without loss from washing, 
the grass lands should form a part of the regular rotation. 
In the corn belt states, meadows regularly form a part of 
the rotation. Where hay is the principal money crop, 
frequently continuous culture is practiced. Hay is kept 
in the meadow as long as a fair crop can be secured, and 
then the field is put under cultivation for a year or two, 
after which it is seeded downi to meadow again. This 
method of hay production, when followed for a number of 
years, is not profitable, as the yields usually become less 
each year until finally a profitable crop is no longer ob- 
tained. Where continuous hay farming is practiced, 
usually little live stock is kept on the farm, so that little 



372 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



barnyard manure is available for fertilization, and since 
few farmers purchase commercial fertilizers for this crop, 
the result is a gradually decreased yield. When land is 
better adapted for hay production than for grains or other 
crops, the largest profits are received by growing hay for 
the market. This system of farming is made far more 
profitable and permanent if fertilizers are regularly applied 
to the grass lands to return to the soil the elements removed 




Fig. 128. — Hauling hay to market. 



by the crop. Methods of fertilization of grass lands will 
be discussed in another paragraph. 

399. Grass mixtures. — When hay is grown for the 
market, the highest price is usually received when it is 
made from one grass rather than from a mixture of several 
grasses. Thus, timothy hay commands a better price 
than hay made from a mixture of timothy and redtop. 
When hay is grown for home use, or when grasses are 
seeded for pasture, a mixture of grasses sometimes is 
desirable, and will usually produce a higher yield than one 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 373 

grass grown alone. Some grasses are shallow rooted while 
others grow medium deep, and still others penetrate quite 
deep into the soil. For this reason, the roots of several 
grasses more completely occupy the soil and together 
produce a larger yield than a single grass. There are 
some grasses which start early in the spring, while others 
do not start growth until later in the season ; certain ones 
grow well during the hot, dry part of the season, while 
others produce little forage at this time ; still others grow 
later in the fall than the majority of grasses, and certain 
kinds may be better adapted to some portions of the field 
than others. Thus not only does a greater production and 
a more continuous growth result from a mixture than from 
a single grass, but also a greater variety of herbage is 
obtained. In selecting grasses for a pasture, those best 
adapted to the field to be seeded should be chosen. Thus 
if the field is low and undrained and likely to be wet, the 
principal grass of the mixture should be one adapted to wet 
soils. Redtop usually forms the principal part of such a 
mixture. If the land is lacking in lime, this element should 
either be supplied before seeding, or such grasses as grow 
well on acid soils should enter into the mixture. Grasses 
used as mixtures for hay should ripen at the same time, 
or some may become dry and unpalatable before the 
rest of the crop is ready to cut. In seeding grasses for a 
permanent pasture that requires some time to become 
established, such as Kentucky blue-grass, other quick 
growing grasses should be seeded with it to furnish forage 
until the blue-grass becomes established. In mixtures 
for pasture, clovers may be included, white clover being 
desirable in almost all permanent pastures. The clovers, 
besides giving variety to the herbage, add nitrogen to the 
soil, making it more productive. The adaptations of the 



374 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



various grasses and legumes are discussed in the chapters 
relating to them and may be consulted in making selections 
of mixtures for hay or pasture. 

400. Testing the seed. — The securing of a successful 
stand of grasses and legumes depends largely upon the 
quality of the seed used in the seeding. Seeds of the 
grasses and legumes are comparatively expensive, and 




Fig. 129. — Examining seeds for purity. 



failure to secure a stand results not only in the loss of the 
value of the seed, and also perhaps in the loss of the use 
of the land for some time, but frequently breaks up the 
regular rotation. It is therefore important that only 
good seed be purchased. Another factor to consider in the 
purchase of grass and legume seed is its purity. Fre- 
quently seeds of other grasses or weed seeds are found in 
commercial grass and legume seeds. Few farmers de- 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 



375 



sire to propagate weeds, especially if they are extremely 
troublesome ones. To pay grass seed prices for weed seed 
is poor economy, and extreme precautions should be taken 
to secure pure, viable seed of the variety desired. Fre- 
quently as much as 10 per cent or more of commercial 
grass or legume seed is weed seed. This, of course, 
means that with each 100 pounds of seed purchased, 10 
pounds are weeds, which results not only in their intro- 
duction into the pas- 
ture or meadow, but 
also increases the actual 
cost of the seeding. To 
insure the purchase of 
pure seed, a small 
quantity of seed from 
several dealers, together 
\vith their prices, may be 
secured for a purity test. 
401. The purity test 
consists in separating 
from a sample the weed 
seed and other foreign 
matter and determining 
by weight the amount 
of pure seed. Not more 

than one or two per cent of foreign matter should be found 
in good seed. After a purity test, the grass of legume 
seed should be tested for germination. Many kinds of 
grass seeds are frequently of poor vitality. The test 
may be made by using the corn germinator box, filling in 
about two inches with sand and adding enough water to 
thoroughly moisten it. The grass seed may then be 
tested between or upon blotting paper placed upon the 




Fig. 



130. — Method of making vitality 
test of grass and legume seeds. 



376 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



sand. Large grass and legume seeds may best be placed 
between blotters, while small seeds, like those of redtop 
and blue grass, are best germinated on top of the blotter. 
The sand in the box serves as a reservoir to supply mois- 
ture to the blotter, thus keeping the seeds moist. Exces- 
sive evaporation, which results in the rapid drying out of 
the sand and blotter, may be prevented if the box is covered 
over with a piece of paper. The temperature at which 
grass seed germinates best varies with the different grasses. 
Blue-grass germinates best if the temperature falls to 40° F. 
during some period of the day with a maximum tempera- 
ture of 70°. Legumes usually germinate in from 6 to 10 
days, while grasses require a longer time, blue-grass 
requiring 28 days. The accompanying table gives the 
temperature, position of seed in the tester, and length of 
time required for the test : 



Kind of Seed 



Alfalfa .... 

Clover, alsike . . 

Clover, crimson . 
Clover, mammoth 

Clover, red . . . 
Clover, white . 
Bermuda-grass 

Brome-grass . . 

Blue-grass . . . 

Meadow fescue . 
Orchard-grass 

Redtop . . . 
Rye grass . 

Timothy . . . 



Position 
IN Tester 



B-B 
T-B 
B-B 
B-B 
B-B 
T-B 
T-B 
B-B 
T-B 
B-B 
B-B 
T-B 
B-B 
T-B 



Temperature 



20° C. 

20° C. 

20° C. 

20° C. 

20° C. 

20° C. 
20-35° C. 
20-30° C. 
20-30° C. 
20-30° C. 
20-30° C. 
20-30° C. 
20-30° C. 
20-30° C. 



Days Required 
FOR Germina- 
tion 



6 

6 

4 

6 

6 

6 

21 

10 

28 

10 

14 

8 

14 

8 



B-B — between blotters. 



T-B — on top of blotter. 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 377 

After the germination test has been completed, the 
results of both the purity and germination tests may 
be consulted, together with the price lists of the dealers, 
and a selection can then be made. In case it is impos- 
sible to secure seed of good vitality, the rate of seeding 
should be regulated according to the percentage of viable 
seeds. 

402. Seeding. — The time, rate, and manner of seeding 
has been discussed in connection with several grasses and 
legumes in preceding chapters. In general, it may be 
said that since grass and legume seeds are small, they 
require a firm, finely pulverized seed bed. Very small 
seeds should not be covered deeply, if at all, while the large 
seeds may be covered lightly with a light harrow or 
weeder. The time of seeding varies with the different 
grasses, but usually they may be seeded at any time during 
the growing season, late summer seeding almost always 
giving good results, especially in the corn belt states. 

403. Care of grass lands. — In the sections of the 
country where hay and pasture crops enter into the regular 
rotation, weeds frequently make a rank growth after the 
removal of the grain or nurse crop. Weeds crowd the 
young plants, compete with them for the soil's moisture, 
and usually grow so rapidly as to produce a dense shade 
and retard the growth and sometimes kill out the young 
grass and legumes. To prevent the weeds from shading 
the grass and also to prevent them from seeding, they 
should be cut with a mower once or twice after the nurse 
crop has been removed. If this practice is followed for 
a few years, the weeds will be prevented from seeding and 
after a time will be eradicated from the farm. Weeds 
allowed to seed year after year soon become so abundant 
as to form a considerable portion of the hay at harvest 



878 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

time. This trouble may be prevented and the fields freed 
from meadow weeds by frequent clipping after the grain 
crop has been removed. 

404. Pasture lands may also be greatly improved in 
quality and abundance of yield if clipped with the mower 
two or three times during the season. Clipping not only 
destroys the weeds, but also cuts off the dry grass, giving 
the animals a better opportunity to graze upon the young 
and tender growth. In many permanent pastures this 
practice will require that stones, shrubs, and bushes be 
removed from the field, but the increased yield will doubt- 
less more than pay for the labor required in this opera- 
tion. Many permanent pastures and meadows after 
long service become unproductive. Mossy growth appears, 
large, bare patches become evident and the grass grows 
reluctantly. Such pastures have for a long time been in 
need of fertilization. Mossy growth is usually associated 
with a lack of lime in the soil, and if upon testing with 
litmus paper, it is found that this element is lacking, it 
should be applied before further fertilization is attempted. 
The kind of lime to apply will depend upon -the cost price, 
although when ground limestone is available, it is usually 
the most convenient form to apply. From one-half to 
two tons or more of ground limestone per acre, depending 
upon the acidity of the soil, may be applied with profit. 
The application may best be made in the fall, winter, or 
early spring. If barnyard manure is available, a hberal 
application with the manure spreader will greatly increase 
the productivity of the pasture or meadow. If manure 
is not available, or only in small amounts, it may be 
supplemented with commercial fertilizers. A high grade 
complete fertilizer is perhaps the best for grass lands in 
which little or no clover is growing. Grasses require 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 379 

large amounts of nitrogen, and unless clovers are growing 
with them to supply this element, they should be applied 
in the form of a complete fertilizer or nitrate of soda. 
Nitrogenous fertilizers, especially nitrate of soda, should 
be applied in the spring after the grass has started growth. . 
From 100 to 150 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre may 
be applied with good results on impoverished fields, and a 
lesser amount on fields in good condition. If a complete 
fertilizer is used, 400 pounds per acre of a fertilizer analyz- 
ing 4 per cent nitrogen, 10 per cent phosphoric acid, and 2 
per cent of potash is considered a good application. Lib- 
eral application of barnyard manure and frequent clipping 
of pastures will greatly increase their productivity, while 
fertilizers are a necessity for continuous profitable yields 
of hay from permanent meadows. 

405. Temporary pastures. — Frequently the permanent 
or regular pasture does not supply the needs of all of the 
animals kept on the farm, and quick growing temporary 
pasture may be used to supplement it. The crop used for 
temporary pastures will depend to some extent upon the 
animals for which they are to furnish forage. Temporary 
pastures are perhaps most useful for hogs or sheep. Rape, 
cowpeas, soy beans, field peas, rye or wheat may be used 
for this purpose. A temporary pasture may be planned 
that will furnish forage from early spring to late fall if 
several small fields are available, or if a large one can 
conveniently-be divided by temporary fences. Rye may 
furnish pasture early in the spring followed by field peas 
alone or with oats, two or three seedings of which a few 
weeks apart will furnish pasture until rape, soy, beans or 
cowpeas are available. Thus a few acres may afford pas- 
ture for a large number of animals throughout the growing 
season. 



380 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

406. Substitute hay crops. — Failure of the regular 
seeding or unusual demands for hay may require substitute 
or supplementary hay crops. Sometimes, too, the mar- 
ket price of timothy, clover, or alfalfa hay is such that 
the regular hay crop may be marketed with profit, a 
substitute crop supplying home needs. Such crops are 
to be found in the field peas, alone or with oats, millets 
and sorghums. The time and method of seeding these 
crops have been discussed in the earlier chapters. 



CHAPTER XXII 

MARKETING OF GRAIN 

The marketing of grain or of any other crop has as its 
basis the principle of barter or trade. The producer trades 
his crop or that portion of it not required for his needs 
for some other commodity which he needs but does 
not produce, or produces in insufficient quantities. In 
former times the traders met at a common market place 
at stated times and there bartered their goods. Later 
on, money as a medium of exchange simplified the matter 
of trading and made possible the great specialization in 
production which exists to-day. The yields of the great 
wheat fields of the Northwest and of the cotton plantations 
of the South more than supply the local demand, and must 
be marketed where these crops are not produced or where 
production does not equal consumption. So it may be 
said that the North supplies the cotton grower with a 
considerable portion of his wheat flour, and in return 
looks to the cotton grower for the various products of 
the cotton fields. In this case, actual exchange of commod- 
ities has not taken place, but the sale of one crop for 
money makes possible the purchase of another or its prod- 
ucts. 

The average grain producer knows but little about the 

devious route taken by his bag of grain after it leaves his 

hands until it reaches the ultimate consumer. He should 

know more about the part taken in the world's business 

381 



382 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



by the products of his labor after it leaves his hands, and 
hew it reaches and supplies the consumer through the 
complicated system of distribution that has been built up 
around it. A most interesting story it is, if told in detail, 
sometimes containing the element of romance and not 
infrequently that of tragedy. We shall not touch upon 
the stories of fortunes won and lost in the grain market, 
but shall attempt to explain in a simple manner the 




Fig. 131. — A typical country elevator. 



general working plan of the great system of grain market- 
ing, touching briefly upon each division of the business 
and the function which it performs. 

407. The country elevator. — The function of the 
country elevator is to purchase from the farmer his surplus 
of grain or hay and to start it upon its way to the con- 
sumer. Country elevators may sometimes store the 
grain for a time, awaiting better shipping facilities or a 
more favorable market. There are three kinds of coun- 
try elevators, based upon their systems of management. 



MARKETING OF GRAIN 383 

namely, the independent, the cooperative, and the Hne 
elevator. The independent elevator is one at a country 
shipping point owned and controlled by one or more in- 
dividuals. The management of such an elevator is inde- 
pendent or not connected with other elevators or large 
market centers. 

408. The cooperative elevator is one owned and oper- 
ated by an association of farmers. A cooperative or 
farmers' elevator usually has some advantages over other 
elevators in the securing of grain from the farmers, many 
of whom are stockholders in the company and share in its 
profits. Sometimes as many as 50 or 100 farmers around 
a shipping point may hold stock in such an elevator, 
which insures for it a large supply of grain. Many farmers, 
also, who are not stockholders prefer to sell their grain to a 
cooperative company, since it is operated by farmers, 
preferring to do business with farmers rather than inde- 
pendent dealers or line elevators. All cooperative 
elevators are not successful, however, as might appear 
from what has been said. Failure is frequently due to 
inexperience of the managers in business affairs, which 
results in poor management. Sometimes, too, jealousy 
springs up between the stockholders, and this frequently 
results in the company's bankruptcy. 

409. The line elevator differs from the independent 
dealer and the farmers' company in that it is only one 
elevator of many along a certain line or lines of railroad, 
and owned and managed by a concern having headquarters 
in one of the large central markets. The line elevator at 
any one shipping point is in charge of an individual who 
is employed by, and receives directions for management 
from, the headquarters in the central market. A line 
elevator company, therefore, may control many elevators 



384 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

along one or more railroads ; and when their combined 
receipts are considered, it will be seen that they handle 
immense quantities of grain. Line elevators are more 
common in new and comparatively undeveloped country 
than where farming has long been in practice. They per- 
form the useful function of buying the producer's grain in 
sections of the country where independent dealers or 
farmers' companies have not yet become established. A 
prejudice usually exists against the line elevators, the 
opinion prevailing that they do not pay the best prices, 
and usually, as the country develops, they come into 
competition with independent dealers and cooperative 
companies. Many line elevators are, however, doing 
successful business where other companies exist, and are 
most commonly found in the West Central and North- 
western States. 

All three types of country elevators perform essentially 
the same function in the grain trade, namely that of pur- 
chasing from the producer at any time he desires to sell 
his surplus of grain. 

410. Terminal markets. — A few years ago the sur- 
plus grain of a community was usually sold to the local 
mill, but with the improvement of shipping facilities, 
there have developed a centralization of storage elevators, 
mills and places of marketing, and now only the smaller 
mills depend entirely upon the local supply of grain, 
almost all large mills buying additional amounts of it 
needed for their mill at the terminal markets. 

Grain purchased by country elevators is usually shipped 
to the terminal or primary market. Such markets are 
located in large cities of easy access by rail or boat from 
the sources of production. At the terminal markets, the 
country elevator men or their representatives meet the 



MARKETING OF GRAIN 



385 



exporters, millers, and others who desire to purchase 
large quantities of grain. Such terminal markets of the 




Fig. 132. — A terminal elevator in Chicago located so as to ship grain 

by rail or boat. 



grain trade are located in Chicago, Minneapolis, Duluth, 
St. Louis, Toledo, and other points. 

411. Terminal elevators. — Terminal elevators, which 
2c 



386 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

are located at the large terminal markets, have immense 
storage capacity and are usually located so as to be able 
to receive or ship grain both by rail and by boat. The 
operators of these elevators usually carry on two distinct 
lines of business. They rent storage room to country 
dealers or others who have grain they wish to store, and 
they act as brokers, buying grain and reselling it. In this 
line of business they may either resell immediately or very 
soon after buying, or they may store the grain for a time, 
awaiting a more favorable opportunity to sell. The 
terminal elevators frequently mix large quantities of grain 
of high grade with small quantities of poor grain, the mix- 
ing being such as not to reduce the grade of the former. 
This operation is one of the sources of profit. 

412. Grain inspection. — Buyers of grain at the ter- 
minal markets buy it in such large quantities, sometimes 
hundreds of thousands of bushels, that it is neither possi- 
ble nor desirable for them to personally inspect each car 
of grain they purchase. Since grain varies greatly in 
quality, and since the quality has a direct relation to the 
value of it, it is desirable that the purchaser as well as the 
seller have some means of determining the quality of a 
certain lot of grain without personally inspecting it. This 
is made possible by a system of grain inspection in which 
a lot of grain arriving at the terminal market is inspected 
and given a grade by official inspectors. The grades are 
so defined that the purchaser knows in a general way the 
quality of the grain as determined by plumpness, hardness, 
presence of foreign matter, weight per bushel, and other 
qualities of importance in estimating its value. There 
are usually four distinct grades. The method of de- 
scribing the grades may be gained from the following 
description of the grades of hard winter wheat : 



MARKETING OF GRAIN 387 

No. 1 Hard Winter Wheat shall include all varieties of pure, 
hard winter wheat, sound, plump, dry, sweet, and well cleaned, 
and weigh not less than 61 pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 2 Hard Winter Wheat shall include all varieties of hard 
winter wheat, of both light and dark colors, dry, sound, sweet, 
and clean, and weigh not less than 59 pounds to the measured 
bushel. 

No. 3 Hard Winter Wheat shall include all varieties of hard 
winter wheat of both light and dark colors, not clean and plump 
enough for No. 2 and weigh not less than 56 pounds to the 
measured bushel. 

No. 4 Hard Winter Wheat shall include all varieties of hard 
winter wheat of both light and dark colors. It may be damp, 
musty, or dirty, and weigh not less than 50 pounds to the meas- 
ured bushel. 

Similar grades are described for the other classes of 
wheat and also for the other grains. Sometimes grain 
reaches the terminal market in such poor condition that 
it is not given a grade, but is sold by sample, in which case 
a small sample is sent to the trading floor so that the pur- 
chaser may see it before making the purchase. 

413. Methods of inspection. — Two systems of grain 
inspection are in practice at terminal markets. '^ Track 
inspection " is the inspecting and grading of the grain at 
the car in the railroad yards or on the boat. A sample is 
taken from the car or boat, and the inspector, after examin- 
ing it and determining the weight per bushel, gives the 
grain a grade. The inspector records in a book or on a 
card the number of the car and the name of the dealer to 
whom consigned, together with the grade he has given it. 
Track inspection is not always satisfactory, since the 
inspector is likely to be influenced in his judgment by ex- 
tremes of weather, such as severe heat or cold, and when 
in doubt as to the grade of a certain lot, he has no one to 
consult or to check up his work. Track inspection for 



388 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



this reason is in many of the markets being replaced by 
'' office inspection." In office inspection samples of grain 
to be inspected are collected from the cars, boats, or ware- 
houses and taken to the office, where a corps of inspectors, 
working under uniform conditions, determine the grade. 
In this system of inspection, the collectors are divided 
into groups, the number of the collectors in each group 




Fig. 133. — Inspecting grain in the room of the Illinois State Grain In- 
spection Department at Chicago. 



being in proportion to the grain received by the railroad 
or dock to which they are assigned. Each group is usually 
placed in charge of a chief sampler, who is held responsible 
for the performance of the men in his charge. Usually 
two-quart samples are taken from several parts of the car ; 
the sample is then bagged and together with the name of 
the railroad, the number of the car and the person to 
whom it is consigned, it is sent to the office for inspection. 
If the car is '^plugged," that is, contains grain of inferior 
quality in the bottom or in one end of the car and which 



MARKETING OF GRAIN 389 

is covered over with grain of better quality, more samples 
are taken in order to get as near as possible a composite 
sample representative of the car as a whole. 

414. Samples are taken with a long, hollow tube with 
holes regularly arranged along the side. A plunger fits 
into the tube, closing up the openings along the side. 
In taking a sample, the tube is pushed down into the grain 
and the plunger is then removed. This allows the grain 
to run into the tube through the holes in the side, and thus 
a sample is obtained containing grain from various depths 
in the car. If the car is damaged or leakage has occurred, 
the collector notes the amount lost and the condition of the 
car, which information is of use to the owner in an attempt 
to collect damages from the railroad. The grade given a 
sample of grain by the inspectors is used as a basis for 
sale. If the shipper is not satisfied with the grade given 
by the inspectors, he may appeal the decision to a board of 
arbitration made up usually of members of the grain 
exchange. This board has the power to regrade the sam- 
ple, their decision being final. 

415. Methods of sale. — At the terminal markets 
there are usually organized grain exchanges, which are 
organizations of individuals interested in the sale or pur- 
chase of grain, who meet regularly for the transaction of 
business. The place of meeting for the transaction of 
sales is usually called the " floor " or the " pit." Men 
who have grain to sell or who desire to purchase may go 
on the floor in person if they are members of the exchange. 
More frequently, however, sales are made through com- 
mission men. Commission men are persons who act as 
agents for the seller or buyer, and receive as their com- 
pensation a stipulated commission, usually 1 to 3 per cent 
of the cash value of the transaction. The amount a 



390 FIELD CHOP PRODUCTION 

commission man is able to earn depends, therefore, upon 
the volume of his business. 

Country elevators usually sell their grain through com- 
mission men. Line elevator companies who sell in large 
amounts may make their sales through a member of the 
firm who is a member of the exchange. Millers usually 
purchase their supply of grain either direct from large 
country elevators or through a commission man on the 
floor of the exchange at the terminal market. 

416. Kinds of contracts. — There are three kinds of 
contracts for straight sales on the floor of most grain 
exchanges. The " to arrive " contract, which is made 
largely with country elevators, is that made with the 
understanding that the grain will arrive within 15 days 
from the date of the transaction. The " to arrive " 
contract is the usual method of selling carload lots, 
although line elevators often do not sell each car sepa- 
rately, sometimes selling " round lots to arrive," which 
may mean from 10 to 100 thousand bushels. Country 
dealers, when a car of grain is started on its way to the 
terminal market, wire or write their representative to sell 
for them " to arrive " a stipulated amount of a certain 
grade of grain. Sometimes the country dealer has reason 
to believe that the price of grain may advance by the time 
the car reaches its destination, in which case the com- 
mission man is instructed to sell " on track." This 
means that the grain at the time of the sale is in the rail- 
road yards of the terminal market. Delivery is made by 
giving to the purchaser the bill of lading. If upon arrival 
of the grain at the terminal market the country dealer 
desires to await a more favorable market, the grain may 
be stored in one of the terminal elevators, for which a 
storage charge is made. In almost all states all public 



MARKETING OF GRAIN 391 

elevators are required by law to receive grain for storage 
at a uniform storage charge as long as available storage 
room remains. The country dealer may keep his grain 
in store as long as the storage charges are paid. When 
he desires to sell, his representative on the floor sells on 
the ^^ in store " contract, and makes the delivery by 
turning over to the purchaser the warehouse receipts. 
Of the three kinds of contracts, the " to arrive '' and 
''on track" are most often used by the country dealer 
in disposing of his grain. 

417. Systems of credit. — Farmers usually demand 
cash payments from the country elevator at the time of 
delivery. If the grain dealer must wait until he resells 
the grain on the permanent market, a large working 
capital is necessary, since it may be two weeks or even 
longer before he is able to secure returns from it. At 
harvest time, and at other times when much grain is 
being received at the country elevator, the dealer may have 
a large amount of money invested in grain on the way 
to the market. In order to reduce the necessary working 
capital of the country elevator man, there often exists 
between the dealer and his representative at the terminal 
market a system of credit in which the country dealer 
takes the bill of lading to which is attached a draft drawn 
against the commission man, to the local bank and re- 
ceives credit for the amount of the draft. The amount 
of the draft in relation to the value of the grain depends 
upon the agreement established beforehand between the 
commission man and his customer. In a steady market 
sometimes he will allow the country dealer to draw upon him 
for as much as 80 per cent of the value of the shipped grain. 
Thus, if the country dealer has shipped grain valued at 
a hundred thousand dollars, he may, by this system of 



392 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

credit, immediately have made available $80,000 for the 
purchase of more grain. When the grain arrives, the 
amount of the draft, together with the commission charges, 
is deducted from the gross receipt from the sale. The 
system of credit existing between the country dealer and 
the commission merchant is a valuable service to the coun- 
try dealer. 

418. Price of grain. — Country elevators usually re- 
ceive by mail each morning prices of grain from the ter- 
minal market, or if a sudden change occurs, they may 
receive the new quotation by wire from their representa- 
tive. The price offered for grain at the country elevator 
is based upon the price prevailing at the permanent 
market. In quoting prices to local sellers, the country 
dealer deducts from the terminal market price the cost 
of freight, the commission charges, a reasonable margin 
which differs with the different grains according to the 
amount of risk run in handling them, and a fair profit, 
including cost of operating the local elevator. Thus, 
if the freight cost to the primary market is 3 cents per 
bushel, the commission charge 1 cent, and the margin 
and profit and cost of operation 5 cents per bushel, the 
price offered by the local dealer will be 9 cents less than 
the price at the terminal market. 

419. Prices at the terminal market. — Prices of grain 
that prevail at the terminal market are dependent upon 
several factors, chief among which are : the favorable- 
ness of weather and other conditions for growing the 
world's crop, the probable yield, the supply and demand 
of importing countries and the yield and prevailing price 
of substitute crops. All of these factors have an appre- 
ciable influence upon the prevailing prices. Weather, 
insects, and diseases play no small part in establishing 



MARKETING OF GRAIN 393 

the market price of a crop. So important are these facts 
that some commission and brokerage houses employ 
experts to make a canvass of the principal producing areas 
of the crops in which they are interested, sometimes 
sending them into foreign lands. Most commission firms, 
however, depend upon government weather and crop 
reports and other information which they frequently 




Fig. 134. — An elevator and concrete storage bins at Baltimore, Md. 
Grain is exported from here. 

receive from country elevators throughout the country. 
The crop reporting system of the Bureau of Statistics 
of the United States Department of Agriculture is very 
complete, by which reports are received from all parts 
of the country from representatives or agents of the 
bureau. Some 50,000 agents and representatives are 
employed in collecting and sending to the Department 
these crops reports. The information thus received is 
issued to the public in monthly crop reports. From the 



394 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



several sources of information grain dealers are usually 
able to tell with unusual certainty the possible and prob- 
able yields from leading crops. How all of the factors 
mentioned at the beginning of the paragraph may affect 
market price of the grain crops cannot be explained here. 
Each, however, has some influence upon the ever changing 
market quotations. 




Fig. 135. — Unloading grain at a Danish port. 



420. Export trade. — The exporter of grain usually 
has headquarters at one of the seaboard markets, such 
as Baltimore or New York. He may buy grain on the 
floor of the local exchange, from commission men repre- 
senting large dealers in the Middle West, or he may go in 
person to the terminal markets of the Middle West and 
buy his grain, or he may secure it through his represent- 
ative there. Some exporters have headquarters at the 



MARKETING OF GRAIN 395 

terminal instead of the seaboard markets. The exporter 
sells abroad through a commission man on the floor of 
foreign exchanges. In the purchase of grain for export, 
the shipper must consider the cost of the grain at the sea- 
board, storage, insurance on the boat, freight charges, 
and the market price at the foreign market. 



APPENDIX 

A BRIEF LIST OF REFERENCES 

Cereals in America Hunt 

Corn Crop Montgomery 

Corn Bowman & Crossley 

The Study of Corn Shoesmith 

Wheat Doudlinger 

The Story of a Grain of Wheat Edgar 

Forages and Fiber Crops Hunt 

Grasses Spillman 

Meadows and Pastures Wing 

Forage Crops Voorhees 

Alfalfa CoBURN 

Clovers Shaw 

The Book of Grasses Francis 

Cotton BURKET 

From the Cotton Field to the Cotton Mill . . . Thompson 

Hemp BoYCE 

The Potato Eraser 

The Potato Grubb 

Corn Plants Sargent 

Plants and Their Uses Sargent 

Agricultural Bota.ny Percival 

Botany for Secondary Schools Bailey 

Plant Physiology Duggar 

Manures and Fertilizers Wheeler 

First Principles of Soil Fertility Vivian 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture . . . . Hopkins 

Plant-Breeding Bailey 

Genetics Walter 

Southern Field Crops Duggar 

Field Crops Wilson and Warburton 

307 



398 FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 

Broom-corn Culture McCall 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life Lipman 

Fungous Diseases of Plants Duggar 

Plant Diseases Stevens and Hall 

Insects Injurious to Staple Crops Sanderson 

Produce Exchanges — Annals American Academy of Political 
and Social Sciences, September, 1911. 

Weeds of Farm and Garden Pammel 

Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Vol. II Bailey 

Laboratory Manual of Cereal and Forage Crops 

Livingston and Yoder 
A Laboratory Manual of Agriculture . . Call and Schafer 
Bulletins of Dominion of Canada Experimental Farms, Ottawa. 
Bulletins of State Experiment Station. 

Bulletins and Year Book of United States Department of Agri- 
culture. 

These books may be obtained through most bookstores and 
publishing houses. 

A list of the various state experiment stations together with 
the post office is given below. Students or instructors may usu- 
ally secure from the director of the station a list of available 
bulletins from which he may select the ones desired. Such a list 
may also be secured from the Bureau of Publications, United 
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 



APPENDIX 



399 



AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT 
STATIONS 

Address Experiment Station at Post Office given. 



Alabama — 

College Station : Auburn 

Canebrake Station : Union- 
to wn. 

Tuskegee Station : Tuskegee. 
Alaska — Sitka. 
Arizona — Tucson. 
Arkansas — Fayetteville. 
California — Berkeley. 
Canada — Ottawa. 
Colorado — Fort Collins. 
Connecticut — 

State Station : Neio Haven. 

Storrs Station : Starrs. 
Delaware — Newark. 
Florida — Lake City. 
Georgia — Experiment. 
Hawaii — 

Federal Station : Honolulu. 

Sugar Planters' Station : 
Honolulu. 
Idaho — Moscow. 
Illinois — Urbana. 
Indiana : Lafayette. 
Iowa — Ames. 
Kansas — Manhattan. 
Kentucky — Lexington. 
Louisiana — 

State Station : Baton Rouge. 

Sugar Station : Audubon Park, 
New Orleans. 

North Louisiana Station : 
Calhoim. 
Maine — Orono. 
Maryland — College Park. 
Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — • Agricultural Col- 
lege. 
Minnesota — St. Anthony 
Park, St. Paul. 



Mississippi — Agricultural Col- 
lege. 
Missouri — 

College Station : Columbia. 

Fruit Station : Mountain 
Grove. 
Montana — Bozeman. 
Nebraska — Lincoln. 
Nevada — Reno. 
New Hampshire — Durham. 
New Jersey — New Bruns- 
wick. 
New Mexico — Mesilla Park. 
New York — 

State Station : Geneva. 

Cornell Station : Ithaca. 
North Carolina — Raleigh. 
North Dakota — Agricultural 

College. 
Ohio — ■ Wooster. 
Oklahoma — Stillwater. 
Ontario : Guelph. 
Oregon — Corvallis. 
Pennsylvania — State College. 
Porto Rico — Mayaguez. 
Rhode Island — Kingston. 
South Carolina — Clemson 

College. 
South Dakota — Brookings. 
Tennessee — Knoxville. 
Texas — College Station. 
Utah — Logan. 
Vermont — Burlington. 
Virginia — Blacksburg. 
Washington — Pullman. 
West Virginia — Morgantown. 
Wisconsin — Madison. 
Wyoming — Laramie. 



400 



FIELD CROP PRODUCTION 



Composition of the Principal Field Crops and their 

Products 

(Adapted from Henry's Feeds and Feeding) 



Alfalfa 

Barley, grain 

Barley, straw 

Barley, brewers' grain (dry) 
Barley, malt sprouts . . 
Barley, hay (cut in milk) . 
Broom-corn seed .... 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat straw .... 

Carrot 

Clover, red 

Clover, mammoth 

Clover, alsike 

Clover, white 

Clover, crimson .... 

Clover, Japan 

Corn, dent 

Corn, flint 

Corn, gluten meal . . . 
Corn, gluten feed .... 

Corn, stover 

Corn, fodder (green) . . . 

Corn, silage 

Cotton seed 

Cotton seed meal .... 
Cotton seed hulls .... 

Cowpea 

Cowpea hay 

Flax seed 

Linseed meal (new process) 
Kafir corn seed .... 
Kentucky blue-grass . . . 
Mangel 



Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 


14.3 


25.0 


42.7 


12.4 


2.7 


69.8 


3.5 


36.0 


39.0 


19.9 


11.0 


51.7 


23.2 


10.7 


48.5 


8.8 


24.7 


44.9 


10.2 


7.1 


63.6 


10.0 


8.7 


64.5 


5.2 


43.0 


35.1 


1.1 


1.3 


7.6 


12.4 


21.9 


38.8 


10.7 


24.5 


33.6 


12.8 


25.6 


40.7 


15.7 


24.1 


39.3 


15.2 


27.2 


36.6 


13.8 


24.0 


39.0 


10.3 


2.2 


70.4 


10.5 


1.7 


70.1 


29.3 


3.3 


46.5 


24.0 


5.3 


51.2 


3.8 


19.7 


31.5 


1.8 


5.0 


12.2 


1.7 


6.0 


11.0 


18.4 


23.2 


24.7 


42.3 


5.6 


23.6 


4.2 


46.3 


33.4 


20.8 


4.1 


55.7 


16.6 


20.1 


42.2 


22.6 


7.1 


23.2 


33.2 


9.5 


38.4 


9.9 


1.4 


74.9 


7.8 


23.0 


37.8 


1.4 


0.9 


5.5 



Ether 
Extract 



2.2 
1.8 
1.5 
5.6 
1.7 
2.4 
3.0 
2.2 
1.3 
0.4 
4.5 
3.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.8 
3.7 
5. 
5. 

11.8 

10.6 

1.1 

0.5 

0.8 

19.9 

13.1 

2.2 

1.4 

2.2 

33.7 

3.0 

3.0 

3.9 

0.2 



APPENDIX 



401 



Composition of the Principal Field Crops and their 
Products — Continued 



Meadow fescue .... 

Millet seed 

Millet hay (Hungarian) . . 

Oats 

Oat straw 

Oat hay (cut in milk) . . 

Orchard- grass 

Peanuts (hulled) .... 

Potato ' 

Redtop 

Rice 

Rice hulls 

Rice polish 

Rye 

Rye straw 

Rye grass, perennial . 
Rye grass, Italian 

Sorghum seed 

Sorghum silage 

Soy bean 

Soy bean hay 

Sugar beet 

Timothy hay (in full bloom) 

Turnip 

Vetch hay 

"Wheat, spring 

Wheat, winter 

Wheat, high grade flour . 
Wheat, low grade flour . 

Wheat, bran 

Wheat, middlings 

Wheat, shorts 

Wheat, straw 







Nitrogen 


Protein 


Crude 


Free 




Fiber 


Extract 


7.0 


25.9 


38.4 


11.8 


9.5 


57.4 


7.5 


27.7 


, 49.0 


11.8 


9.5 


59.7 


4.0 


37.0 


42.4 


9.3 


29.2 


39.0 


7.9 


28.6 


47.5 


27.9 


7.0 


15.6 


2.1 


0.6 


17.3 


8.0 


29.9 


46.4 


7.4 


0.2 


79.2 


3.6 


35.7 


38.6 


11.7 


6.3 


• 58.0 


10.6 


1.7 


72.5 


3.0 


38.9 


46.6 


10.1 


25.4 


40.5 


7.5 


30.5 


45.0 


9.1 


2.6 


69.8 


0.8 


6.4 


15.3 • 


34.0 


4.8 


28.8 


15.4 


22.3 


38.6 


1.8 


0.9 


9.8 


6.0 


29.6 


41.9 


1.1 


1.2 


6.2 


17.0 


25.4 


36.1 


12.5 


1.8 


71.2 


11.8 


1.8 


72.0 


14.9 


0.3 


70.0 


18.0 


0.9 


63.3 


15.4 


9.0 


53.9 


15.6 


4.6 


60.4 


14.9 


7.4 


56.8 


3.4 


38.1 


43.4 



Ether 

Extract 



2.7 
4.0 
2.0 
5.0 
2.3 
2.3 
1.9 

39.6 
0.1 
2.1 
0.4 
0.7 
7.3 
1.7 
1.2 
2.1 
1.7 
3.6 
0.3 

16.9 
5.2 
0.1 
3.0 
0.2 
2.3 
2.2 
2.1 
2.0 
3.9 
4.0 
4.0 
4.5 
1.3 



2d 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 

CHAPTER I 

I. Why is the classification of plants of interest to the student 
of farm crops ? What is a species, variety, genus, family, order, 
class and division ? 

II. Discuss some of the variations found within the plant 
kingdom, in regard to (a) size, (6) structure, (c) habitation, 
(d) food requirements, (e) usefulness to man of the various plants. 

III. How may one determine the proper classification of an 
individual plant ? How does the botanical name assist one in 
identification ? 

IV. How may plants be classified with respect to their length 
of life, their usefulness to man and their culture ? What are 
field crops, and how may they be classified ? Name several 
members of each group. Discuss the relative importance of 
each group erf field crops. 

CHAPTER II 

I. (a) What is meant by the term "rotation of crops " ? 
(6) What is meant by the term "continuous culture"? 

II. Compare yields of wheat obtained from rotation and con- 
tinuous culture at Rothamsted. The same for barley. 

III. What effect has continuous culture had upon the yield 
of corn at the Illinois Station ? At the Ohio Station ? 

IV. Compare results obtained at the Ohio Station with corn 
and wheat fertilized and unfertilized in continuous culture. 
Make same comparison in rotation culture. 

V. Why do rotations of crops give better yields than con- 
tinuous culture ? Give six reasons. 

VI. What factors must be considered in planning a rotation ? 

VII. Does rotation alone maintain the fertility of the soil? 
Why? 

VIII. Give eight rotations commonly recommended. 

403 



404 REVIEW QUESTIONS 

CHAPTER III 

I. What evidences have we that corn is a native of the western 
hemisphere? 

II. How does the corn plant differ from and what characters 
has it in common with the other cereals ? To what great family 
of plants does it belong ? 

III. What is the function of the three groups of roots possessed 
by the corn plant ? At what time in the life of the plant is each 
of them most useful ? What factors influence the extent of the 
root system ? Does deep planting insure a deep root system ? 

IV. What factors influence the growth of the stem? Is 
the height of the stem constant for a variety or type of corn ? 

V. How many growing leaves does one find on a medium-size 
plant? What percentage of the total dry weight at maturity 
is leaf ? 

VI. How do the flowers of the corn plant differ from those of 
wheat and barley ? Describe the flowers of corn, as to their 
structure and position. What are the silks, and what functions 
do they perform ? Why are there always an even number of 
rows on an ear? In what part of the ear are the first kernels 
formed? What is meant by the term "cross-pollination"? 
What provision has been made to render self-pollination difficult 
in the corn plant ? What weather conditions may influence 
pollination ? 

VII. How many ears are normally produced on a stalk of corn 
in your section ? When two ears are produced, which one 
develops first ? What factors may influence the number of ears 
produced on a stalk ? 

VIII. What are the stages in the development of the kernel? 
Draw on the blackboard a cross section of a corn kernel showing 
the arrangement and the relative proportion of parts. What 
are the common colors of corn kernels ? Where is the color 
pigment located ? 

IX. What can you say of the ancestry of the corn plant? 
What significance has the occasional variation one finds in the 
corn fields ? Can you secure a number of variations and explain 
their probable significance ? 

X. Draw on the board a cross section of a kernel of each type 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 405 

of corn showing: the characteristic shape, proportion and arrange- 
ment of parts. How do the different types of corn get their 
names ? Where is each type grown, and how do you account 
for this distribution ? Discuss the usefulness and importance 
of each type. 

XI. What are the important uses of corn ? Name several 
manufactured products made from it. What is gluten feed and 
gluten meal ? 

XII. What is the average annual world's production of corn 
for the four years 1908 to 1912 ? At current market prices what 
is its value ? What are the leading corn-producing countries 
of the world ? In what ways may an increase in production be 
brought about? What is meant by the term "corn belt" 
states ? What is the average yield per acre in the United States ? 
In the corn belt ? In your state ? In your county ? 

XIII . What soils and climates are suitable for growing corn ? 
What are the principal factors that limit the production in vari- 
ous parts of United States ? 

CHAPTER IV 

I. When does corn do best in the rotation? What can you 
say of the practice of continuous culture ? What kinds of soil 
may usually be profitably fertilized for corn ? How should the 
fertilizer be applied ? 

II. What are the benefits derived from plowing ? What are 
the special advantages of fall plowing ? What can you say of 
late spring plowing ? 

III. How would you prepare a seed bed on fall plowed land ? 
On spring plowed land ? What can you say of the use of the 
roller in preparing a seed bed ? 

IV. What does the farmer mean by the term a " stand of 
corn " ? What is a perfect stand, and what factors must the 
farmer overcome to secure it ? Make a germinating box and 
carry through a germination test of several ears of corn. Ex- 
plain the precautions necessary to take in order to secure a useful 
test. 

V. What can you say of the practice of grading ^eed corn ? 

VI. Discuss early versus late planting of corn. 

VII. Discuss deep versus shallow planting of corn. 



406 REVIEW QUESTIONS 

VIII. Upon what factors does the rate of planting depend ? 
How does the corn plant adapt itself to a given rate of planting ? 
What factors must be considered in determining whether to drill 
or hill the corn ? 

IX. What is the purpose of cultivation ? Under what condi- 
tions may the weeder or harrow be useful in the cultivation of 
corn ? Discuss deep versus shallow cultivation. Upon what 
does the frequency of cultivation depend ? 

X. What different methods are employed in harvesting the 
corn crop in the United States? When should corn be cut for 
the shock ? For the silo ? Do you think " hogging off " of corn 
is a good method of harvesting ? 

XI. About how much moisture is there in ear corn at harvest 
time ? A year after harvesting ? Upon what factors does the 
amount of moisture depend ? When is there the greatest 
shrinkage of corn in store ? What sort of storage should be 
provided for ear corn ? 

XII. In what two ways may the production of corn be in- 
creased ? Which do you consider the more important ? How 
would you conduct a variety test ? What is the practical value of 
it ? Is it a good practice to import seed corn from other states ? 

XIII. What methods of seed selection are now in practice? 
Which is the best method ? Why ? What objections are there 
to the other methods ? 

XIV. What is an ear-to-row test ? Upon what fact is it 
based ? How would you conduct such a test ? What factors 
may influence the value of the test ? What is the use of the 
check rows? Why does one not select seed corn from the ear- 
to-row test ? 

XV. What is a breeding plot, and how is it conducted ? 
What is a multiplying plot ? What are the practical advantages 
of a corn show ? 

XVI. Give the life history and methods of controlling the 
insect enemies of corn. The fungous diseases. 

CHAPTER V 

I. Discuss the antiquity of wheat. What can you say as to 
its usefulness to man in early days of civilization ? 

II. What are the distinctive botanical characteristics of wheat ? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 407 

What are some of its close relatives among our cultivated crops ? 
Based upon the time of seeding, what groups of wheat are found 
in the United States ? 

III. Compare the roots of wheat with those of corn with 
respect to extent of development, location in soil, depth of 
penetration and size. 

IV. Describe the appearance of the wheat plant during the 
early stages of growth. Where does growth take place resulting 
in the elongation of the stem ? What is stooling, and upon what 
conditions does it depend ? What is the proportion of grain to 
straw ? What influences have fertilizers upon this ratio ? 

V. Draw on the board a spikelet of wheat showing all of the 
parts in their relative positions. How many spikelets grow 
from each joint of the rachis ? What factors influence the num- 
ber of spikelets per head ? What is a sterile flower ? Sterile 
spikelet ? What are the common shapes of wheat heads ? 
Are they variety characteristics or due to soil and climate ? 

VI. Compare the flowers of wheat with those of the corn 
plant. Is wheat cross-pollinated ? Draw a longitudinal sec- 
tion of a wheat kernel showing the position of parts. What 
becomes of each part in the making of flour ? 

VII. Give the characteristics of each type of wheat. Give 
their distribution and uses. 

VIII. Tell the story of the evolution of the flour mill. De- 
scribe briefly the process of modern milling, giving the various 
products resulting therefrom. What are the different grades 
of flour, and what determines them ? Discuss the quality of 
bread made from the different bread wheats. What are the 
characteristics of a good bread wheat ? 

IX. What countries are the principal contributors to the 
world's wheat crop ? What regions in the United States produce 
large amounts ? How does the yield per acre of wheat in the 
United States compare with that secured in other lands ? Why 
does the world at large manifest so much interest in the wheat 
crop ? What can you say of the relation of production to con- 
sumption of wheat in the world to-day ? What of the future ? 
What bread-eating nations produce more wheat than they con- 
sume ? Which are forced to import wheat to meet their needs ? 

X. Name the wheat districts of the United States, and de- 



408 REVIEW QUESTIONS 

scribe the kind of wheat produced in each. What reasons are 
there for this condition ? Why do buyers of wheat on the market 
pay so much attention to where the wheat was grown ? 

XI. What conditions of climate and soil are best suited for 
the production of wheat ? Are these factors as important in 
the distribution of wheat as they are in the distribution of corn ? 
How does climate affect the quality of the wheat produced ? 

XII. What place does wheat usually occupy in the rotation ? 
Where is continuous culture of wheat in common practice ? 

XIII. What general principles of preparing the seed bed 
discussed in the chapter on Corn should be considered in pre- 
paring land for wheat ? What important difference is to be 
considered in preparing land for corn and for wheat ? How 
would one prepare an oat stubble for seeding wheat ? A corn 
field? 

XIV. How should seed wheat be prepared for sowing ? 
Describe the formalin treatment for smut. Upon what factors 
does the time of seeding wheat depend ? Does deep seeding 
protect wheat from freezing out during the winter? At what 
stage of development should wheat be harvested ? What effect 
has exposure to weathering upon the crop ? 

XV. Why is the problem of wheat improvement so important ? 
What methods may be employed ? How should a variety test 
be conducted ? What is the practical value of such a test ? 
How does the head-row test of wheat differ from the ear-row 
test of corn ? What points are considered by the miller in valu- 
ing wheat for the making of flour? 

XVI. Give the life histories and methods of controlling the 
insect enemies of wheat. The fungous diseases. 

CHAPTER VI 

I. Tell something of the history of the cultivation of oats. 

II. (a) Compare the botanical characteristics of oats with those 
of wheat, (b) What is a panicle? (c) What different type of 
panicles do we find in the oat plant? (d) Are oats likely to 
become mixed when two varieties are grown side by side ? 

III. (a) How does the thrashed grain of oats differ from that of 
wheat? (b) About what percentage of the total weight is hull? 
(c) What factors influence the percentage of hull ? (d) What is 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 409 

the legal weight per bushel, and what variation from it may be 
expected? (e) What are clipped oats? 

IV. How may oats be classified ? What types are grown in 
your section ? 

V. Discuss use of oats as (a) feed for animals, (6) human 
food, (c) other uses. 

VI. What are the leading oat-producing countries of the 
world ? What part of the world's crop is produced in the United 
States? What states lead in the production? Compare 
yields per acre obtained in the United States with those of other 
countries. Does the United States export oats ? 

VII. Discuss the adaptation of oats to soil and climate. 

VIII. What place may oats occupy in the rotation ? 
(a) Discuss its usefulness as a nurse crop for grasses and clovers. 
(6) Discuss the preparation of the seed bed for oats, and the use 
of fertilizers and manures in oat culture, (c) What factors in- 
fluence the time and rate of seeding ? (d) Outline a method for 
the improvement of the oat crop. 

IX. How would you treat seed oats to prevent loose smut ? 

CHAPTER VII 

I. Discuss the ancient culture of barley, and compare it in 
this respect with that of wheat. 

II. (a) Compare the botanical characteristics of barley with 
those of wheat and oats. (6) How do the spikelets differ from 
those of wheat and rye ? (c) What percentage of the barley grain 
is hull ? (d) How does the stage of maturity at which barley 
is harvested affect the character of the endosperm ? 

III. Describe the types of barley and the basis upon which 
the classifications are made. 

IV. (a) Discuss the uses of barley. (6) What are important 
by-products of the malting process? (c) What advantages 
does barley possess over other cereals for malting ? {d) What 
are the characteristics of a good malting barley ? 

V. (a) Compare the world's production of barley with that of 
wheat, oats and corn. (6) What are the leading barley pro- 
ducing countries? (c) What part does the United States play 
in the world's production? (d) Discuss the distribution of 
barley in the United States, (e) Exports and imports. 



410 REVIEW QUESTIONS 

VI . Discuss (a) the methods of preparing land for barley, (6) 
time, rate and methods of seeding. 

VII. What insect enemies and fungous diseases are trouble- 
some in growing barley ? How may they be controlled ? 

CHAPTER VIII 

I. Discuss the culture of rye with respect to its (a) original 
home, (6) importance in early agricultural development, (c) im- 
portance in recent times. 

II. Compare the botanical characteristics of rye with those 
of wheat. 

III. Discuss the uses of rye (a) as human food, (b) as green 
manure and forage. 

IV. (a) What is the world's production, and what countries are 
important producers of rye ? (6) Discuss the production of rye 
in the United States with respect to (a) total production, (6) dis- 
tribution, (c) yield per acre, (d) uses. 

V. Compare the soil and climatic adaptation of rye (a) with 
those of wheat and barley, (6) with respect to cultural methods. 

CHAPTER IX 

I. (a) Discuss the early history of rice. (6) Compare it botani- 
cally with the other cereals. 

II. (a) What are the important uses of rice ? (6) How is it 
prepared for the market ? (c) What are its by-products ? 

III. (a) Discuss the world's supply and demand of rice. (6) 
What countries produce it in large amounts ? (c) How does the 
United States rank as a producer of rice ? (d) Discuss its dis- 
tribution in the United States, (e) Its yield per acre. 

IV. (a) To what climate and soils is it adapted ? (h) .Com- 
pare the methods of its culture with those of wheat. 

V. (a) Why is buckwheat classed with the cereals ? (b) Com- 
pare its botanical characters with those of the cereals, (c) How 
does it thicken up a stand when seeded too thinly ? 

VI. What are the uses of buckwheat ? How does buckwheat 
flour differ from wheat flour ? 

VII. Discuss (a) its production in the United States, (b) its 
cultural methods, (c) its yield per acre, (d) methods of harvesting. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 411 

CHAPTERS X AND XI 

I. Discuss the history and common names of each of the 
following : (a) Timothy, (5) Kentuclvy blue-grass, (c) Canada 
blue-grass, (d) redtop, (e) orchard-grass, (/) Brome-grass, (g) the 
fescues, (h) Bermuda-grass, (i) Johnson-grass. 

II. Discuss and compare the above grasses with respect to 
the following : (a) nature and extent of the root system, (6) 
nature and extent of the stem and leaves, (c) inflorescence, (d) 
seed, (e) length of life, and (/) influence of environment upon 
these characters. 

III. Discuss and compare the distribution and adaptation 
of the above grasses with respect to: (a) soils, (5) climate, (c) 
factors limiting production, (d) distribution and value in the 
United States. 

IV. Compare the methods of culture of the above grasses 
with respect to (a) preparation of seed bed, (6) time and rate 
of seeding, (c) use of nurse crop, (d) mixtures with other grasses 
and clovers. 

V. Discuss and compare the (a) time of harvest, (6) quality of 
hay, (c) quality of pasture, ((i)after growth, (e) number of crops, 
(/) yield and value. 

CHAPTER XII 

I. To what group of field crops do the millets belong ? What 
determines tlieir classification ? 

II. What are the fox-tail millets ? Discuss the three varieties 
with respect to (a) general appearance and botanical char- 
acteristics, (6) earliness, (c) adaptation to soils, (d) to climate, 
(e) extent of culture, (/) use, (g) yield. 

III. Compare the broom-corn millets with the fox-tails with 
respect to (a) botanical characteristics, {b) adaptation, (c) 
uses, (d) yield. 

IV. Discuss the barnyard millets from the standpoint of 
(a) use as forage, (6) adaptation to soils and climate, (c) extent 
of culture. 

V. Discuss the methods of seeding millets. Their harvest. 

VI. What has been the probable origin of our cultivated 
sorghums ? What are the groups of sorghums, and how do they 
differ in their botanical characteristics ? 



412 BEVIEW QUESTIONS 

VII. Compare the saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums 
with respect to (a) adaptation to soil, (6) climate, (c) methods 
of culture, (d) uses, (e) extent of culture, (/) yield and value. 

VIII. Compare the kafirs with the milo in respect to their 
(a) distribution, (6) adaptation, (c) cultural method, {d) uses 
and value. 

IX. (a) What relationship exists between the millets and 
broom-corns ? Give the botanical characteristics of the broom- 
corns. (6) Discuss them as to (1) adaptation, (2) extent of 
culture, (3) value, (4) cultural methods. 

CHAPTER XIII 

I. (a) Tell something of the membership of the Leguminosse 
family. (6) How does the Papilionaceae group get its name? 
In common usage the term "legume" refers to which members 
of the Leguminosae family ? 

II. Compare the following botanical characteristics of the 
legumes with the grasses : (a) root system, (6) stem development, 
(c) leaves, {d) flowers, (e) fruit, (/) seeds. 

III. Dissect a flower of the pea or bean, noting the arrange- 
ment of parts and their functions. How do we know that insects 
play an important role in the pollination of certain legumes. 

IV. Tell the story of the discovery of the relationship of the 
legumes to the nodule bacteria. How do both the legume and 
the bacteria profit by their close relationship ? Does each legume 
have a certain type of bacteria with which it lives in symbiosis ? 

V. How do the bacteria become distributed over such large 
areas? What methods of inoculation may be employed? 

CHAPTER XIV 

I. To what genus do the true clovers belong ? 

II. Discuss the history of the red clover. By what other 
names is it known ? Answer the same questions for alsike, white, 
crimson and mammoth clovers. 

III. Compare the following botanical characteristics of the 
above clovers : (a) root system, (6) extent and development of 
stems, (c) leaves, {d) flowers, (e) seeds, (/) length of life. 

IV. Compare them with respect to (a) adaptation to soils. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 413 

(b) climates, (c) rotations, (d) uses, (e) after growth, (/) methods 
and rate of seeding, (g) harvesting. 

V. Give the life histories of the insect enemies of clovers. 
How may they be controlled ? 

CHAPTER XV 

I. Discuss the history of alfalfa as a farm crop. 

II. Discuss alfalfa with respect to (a) extent and develop- 
ment of root system, (6) stems and leaves, (c) flowers and seeds, 
(d) varieties. 

III. What can you say of the distribution of alfalfa in (a) Eu- 
rope ? (6) South America ? (c) The United States ? 

IV. What are its climatic adaptations? Discuss fully its 
adaptation to soils. 

V. What are the principal uses of alfalfa ? Why is it con- 
sidered a valuable and profitable crop? Does it lend itself to 
short rotations ? 

VI. Discuss the cultural methods of alfalfa with respect to 
(a) preparing the land, (6) time of seeding, (c) rate of seeding, 
(d) use of nurse crop, (e) cultivation, (/) time of cutting for hay, 
(g) use as pasture, (h) cutting for seed, (i) yield of hay and seed. 

CHAPTER XVI 

I. Compare the two vetches with respect to (a) botanical 
characteristics of plant and seed, (6) cultural methods, 

(c) length of life, (d) distribution, (e) adaptation, (/) uses. 

II. Give the botanical characteristics of the two sweet clovers. 
Discuss them with respect to (a) adaptation, (6) uses, (c) cul- 
tural methods. 

III. Where are the following legumes grown, and of what 
importance are they in those localities : (a) Japan clover, (6) 
bur clover? 

CHAPTER XVII 

I. Compare the soy bean with the cowpea in respect to the 
following : (o) history, (b) botanical characteristics of root, 
stem, leaves and flowers, (c) varieties, (d) distribution, (e) adapta- 
tion to soils and climates, (/) uses. 



414 REVIEW QUESTIONS 

II. Discuss them with respect to (a) cultural methods, (6) 
time and rate of seeding, (c) cultivation, (d) harvesting, (e) yield. 

III. How does the field pea differ from the cowpea and the 
soy bean in respect to (a) general appearance, (6) botanical char- 
acteristics, (c) distribution and adaptation, (d) cultural methods, 
(e) uses, and (/) yield. 

IV. Where are field beans and peanuts grown as farm crops ? 
Discuss their adaptations and cultural methods. Their yield 
value and uses. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

I. What are the general characteristics of the root crops ? 
What are the important root crops ? What are the important 
groups of the beet family ? 

II. (a) How has the sugar beet been developed ? (6) What 
is the sugar content of good beets ? (c) What is the world's 
production, and what part of it is contributed by the United 
States ? (d) What are the climatic and soil adaptations of the 
sugar beet ? (e) Discuss the cultural methods of sugar beets with 
respect to (1) preparation of land, (2) time and rate of seeding, 
(3) cultivation, (4) harvesting, (5) marketing, (6) seed production. 

III. Discuss the mangel-wurzel, carrot, turnip and rutabaga 
with respect to (a) adaptation, (5) cultural methods, (c) uses, 
(d) value, (e) yield. 

IV. (a) Is rape a true root crop ? (6) To what garden crop 
is it closely related ? (c) Discuss rape with respect to (1) adapta- 
tion, (2) use as hay, (3) use as pasture, (4) cultural methods. 

CHAPTER XIX 

I. Tell something of the history of the cotton plant, (a) To 
what family of plants does it belong ? (6) Give its characteris- 
tics, with respect to (1) roots, (2) stem and leaves, (3) boll 
and fiber, (4) seed, (c) Describe the three types of cotton. 

II. What is the principal use of the fiber? How is the fiber 
prepared for the market ? How is it manufactured into cloth ? 

III. What use is made of the cotton seed? What yield is 
secured per acre ? What is its value ? 

IV. What is the world's production of cotton, and what part 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 415 

of it is contributed by the United States? What is the cotton 
belt of the United States ? 

V. Discuss the adaptation of cotton to soils and climate. 

VI. Discuss its culture with respect to (a) preparing the land, 
(b) planting and cultivation, (c) harvesting. 

VII. What are the troublesome insect enemies? 

VIII. What are the distinctive botanical characteristics of 
flax ? How does it thicken up a stand ? 

IX. W^hat are the uses of the seed ? What articles are made 
from the fiber ? How is the fiber prepared for market ? 

X. Where is flax grown for seed ? Where for fiber ? Which 
is the most important use? What are the soil and climatic 
adaptations ? Discuss the cultural methods employed. 

XI. Discuss hemp with respect to (a) botanical relationships, 
(b) characteristics, (c) adaptations, ((/) distribution, (e) uses, 
(/) cultural methods, (g) yield. 

CHAPTER XX 

I. Tell of the early history of potato culture in the United 
States and in Europe. 

II. How does the United States compare with European 
countries as a producer of potatoes ? In what states are potatoes 
an important field crop, and what are their acre yields ? 

III. How is the potato propagated? What is the tuber? 
Where is the seed produced? Why is it not used in propaga- 
tion ? Compare the chemical composition of the potato with 
that of corn. 

IV. Discuss the types of soil best suited for growing potatoes. 
What place do potatoes occupy in the rotation ? 

V. What is sun sprouting ? What are its advantages ? Com- 
pare Northern grown with home grown seed. 

VI. What is the usual rate and depth of planting potatoes? 
What fertilizers may be used to advantage ? 

VII. What are some well-known varieties of potatoes ? Which 
ones are grown in your locality ? 

VIII. Discuss the "running out" of potatoes. 

IX. When should potatoes be harvested? What sort of 
machinery may be employed in harvesting them ? Discuss the 
storing of potatoes. 



416 REVIEW QUESTIONS 

X. Give the life histories and methods of controlling the insect 
enemies of potatoes. The fungous diseases. 

CHAPTER XXI 

I. What importance does the farmer usually attach to the 
meadows and pastures in comparison with other field crops ? 
What has been the result ? 

II. Discuss their fertilization with manure and chemical 
fertilizers. Results of continuous cropping without fertiliza- 
tion. 

III. What are the advantages of grass and legume mixtures 
for (a) hay, (6) pasture ? What factors must be considered 
in forming the mixtures ? 

IV. How may grass and legume seed be tested for germina- 
tion ? For purity ? Are these tests important ? 

V. Discuss the care of grass lands for best results. How would 
you go about improving a run-down meadow or pasture ? 

VI. Can you plan a scheme by which temporary pasture 
may be available throughout the growing season ? 

VII. What is the value of substitute hay crops ? 

CHAPTER XXII 

I. What has made possible the great specialization in crop 
production that is found to-day ? Why was this impossible in 
the early days of agricultural development ? 

II. What are the three types of country elevators ? What 
is their function, and how are they of service to the farmer ? Dis- 
cuss the methods of management of each type. 

III. What is a terminal market? A terminal elevator? 
What function does the latter perform ? 

IV. Why is grain graded on the market ? How is it done ? 
What are the methods of sale at the terminal market? The 
kinds of contracts ? Systems of credit ? Upon what does the 
price of grain depend ? 

V. How does our surplus grain reach the foreign markets ? 



INDEX 



Agronomist, 9. 
Agrostis alba, 206. 
Alfalfa : 

adaptations to climate, 282. 

adaptation to soils, 283. 

cultivation of, 288. 

cultural methods of, 286. 

description of, 279. 

distribution of, 282. 

harvesting seed, 291. 

history, 278. 

making the hay, 289. 

seeding of, 287. 

uses of, 284. 

varieties of, 281. 
Alsike clover, 270. 
Arachis hypogoea, 320. 

Bacteria of legumes, 249. 
Barley : 

adaptation of, 172. 

botanical characters of, 165. 

brewers' grain from, 170. 

culm of, 165. 

exports of, 172. 

feeding value of, 170. 

fungous diseases of, 176. 

harvesting of, 175. 

history of, 164. 

hull-less, 168. 

imports of, 172. 

insect enemies of, 176. 

kinds for malting, 170. 

making malt from, 168. 

malt extract of, 169. 

methods of culture, 173. 

percentage of hull, 166. 

preparing land for, 173. 

price of, 170. 

production of, 171. 

2e 



Barley — continued: 

roots of, 105. 

rotations for, 173. 

seeding of, 175. 

six-rowed, 168. 

soils for, 172. 

spikelets of, 165. 

two-rowed, 167. 

types of, 167. 

use of, 168. 

varieties of, 168. 

weight per bushel of, 167. 

yield per acre of, 171. 
Barnyard millets, 225. 
Barren stalks, 73, 74. 
Bean, soy, 305. 
Bean, the field, 320. 
Beet family, 323. 
Bermuda-grass : 

adaptation, 218. 

cultural methods, 218. 

description, 217. 

uses, 218. 
Beta vulgaris, 323. 
Blue-grass, Kentucky : 

adaptation, 203. 

cultural methods, 205. 

description, 201. 

distribution, 203. 

harvesting, 204. 

mixtures of, 205. 

seeding, 205. 

seed, weight per bushel, 202. 

uses of, 204. 
Blue-grass, Canada, 206. 
Botany, systematic, 2. 
Brace roots of corn, 32. 
Brassica rapus, 333. 
Bread wheats, 112. 
Brewers' grain, 170. 



417 



418 



INDEX 



Brome-grass : 

adaptation, 214. 

cultural methods, 215. 

description, 213. 

distribution, 214. 

uses, 214. 
Bromus inter mis, 213. 
Broomcorn : 

adaptation, 236. 

cultural methods, 237. 

description, 235. 

dwarf-type, 235. 

harvesting, 237. 

standard, 235. 
Broom-corn millets, 224. 
Bryophytes, 6. 
Buckwheat : 

adaptation, 192. 

botanical description, 189. 

by-products from, 191. 

composition of, 401. 

cultural methods, 192. 

farm value, 192. 

harvesting, 193. 

history, 186. 

production, 191. 

relationships, 189. 

seeding, 192. 

seeds, 191. 

uses, 191. 

weight per bushel, 191. 

yield, 192. 
Bur clover, 302. 

Canada blue-grass, 206. 
Canada field peas, 317. 
Cane, 229. 

Capriola dactylon, 217. 
Carrot, 332. 
Catch crop, 12. 
Cereals, 10. 
Chcetochloa italica, 221. 
Chevalier barley, 168. 
Chinch bug, 143. 
Clipped oats, 149. 
Clover, alsike : 

adaptation, 270. 

cultural methods of, 271. 

description of, 269. 



Clover, alsike — continued: 

distribution of, 270. 
Clover, bur, 302. 
Clover, crimson : 

adaptation of, 273. 

cultural methods of, 275. 

description of, 272. 

distribution of, 273. 

uses of, 274. 
Clover, Japan, 303. 
Clover, mammoth: 

adaptation, 264. 

cultural methods, 265. 

description, 264. 

distribution of, 264. 

uses of, 265. 
Clover, red : 

adaptation, 256. 

cultural methods, 259. 

cutting for hay, 261. 

cutting for seed, 262. 

description of, 254. 

distribution of, 256. 

history of, 254. 

insect enemies of, 276. 

seed of, 256. 

uses of, 258. 
Clover, white : 

adaptation, 207. 

cultural methods, 267. 

description, 266. 

uses of, 267. 
Clover, white sweet : 

adaptation, 299. 

cultural methods, 301. 

description, 298. 

uses, 300. 
Clover, yellow sweet, 302. 
Clover leaf weevil, 276. 
Clover root borer, 276. 
Clover seed midge, 277. 
Clovers: 

insect enemies of, 276. 

relationships, 253. 
Club wheat, 110, 125. 
Colorado potato beetle, 366. 
Contracts of sale, 390. 
Corn : 

adaptation of, 57. 



INDEX 



419 



Corn — continued: 

ancestors of, 38. 

botanical characters of, 30. 

breeding plot of, 90. 

cultivation of, 75. 

culture of, 59. 

dent corn, 42. 

ears of, 36. 

ear-to-row test, 88. 

exports of, 56. 

fertilization of, 60. 

field selection of, 87. 

flint corn, 43. 

flowers of, 34. 

fodder, 78. 

fungous diseases of, 96. 

grading seed, 71. 

harvesting of, 76. 

history of, 29. 

improvement of, 82. 

insect enemies of, 93. 

judging of, 92. 

kernels of, 37. 

leaves of, 33. 

loss in store, 81. 

manufactured products of, 51. 

multiplying plot, 91. 

planting of, 71. 

plowing for, 61. 

pod corn, 49. 

pop corn, 44. 

preparing land for, 66. 

production of, 54. 

protecting from rodents, 98. 

roots of, 30. 

rotation of, 59. 

soft corn, 46. 

stand of, 68. 

stem of, 32. 

stover, 78. 

sweet corn, 47. 

testing of seed, 68. 

types of, 41. 

uses of, 50-53. 

value of, 57. 

variety tests of, 83. 

weight per bushel, 46. 

yield of, 56. 
Corn-root- louse, 95. 



Corn root-worm, 95. 
Cotton : 

adaptation of, 346. 

boll of, 340. 

cultivation of, 349. 

culture of, 348. 

description of, 337. 

fiber of, 340. 

harvesting, 350. 

history of, 336. 

insect enemies of, 351. 

kinds of, 341. 

linter of, 344. 

marketing of, 342. 

oil cake of, 344. 

preparation of fiber, 342. 

production in United States, 346 

production in world, 345. 

Sea Island, 341. 

upland, 341. 

varieties of, 342. 
' yield of, 346. 
Cotton fabrics, 342. 
Cover crops, 12. 
Cowpea : 

adaptation of, 314. 

cultural methods of, 315. 

description of, 312. 

distribution of, 314. 

uses of, 314. 
Credit system, 391. 
Crimson clover, 272. 
Crop rotations : 

advantages of, 20. 

at Iowa and Illinois, 16. 

at Rothamsted, 14, 15. 

in Ohio, 18. 

maintaining fertility by, 25. 

planning of, 23. 

suggested rotations, 27. 
Cultivated plants, 1, 8. 
Cut worm, 94. 

Dactylis glomerata, 210. 
Dry rot of potato, 369. 
Durum wheat. 111, 126. 

Early blight of potato, 368. 
Ear-to-row test, 88. 



420 



INDEX 



Ear rots, 97. 
Einkorn, 108. 
Elevators : 

cooperative, 383. 

country, 382. 

line, 383. 

seaboard, 394. 

terminal, 385. 
Emmer, 109. 
Export trade in grain, 394. 

Fagopyrum esculentum, 189. 
Fertilization of : 

corn, 35. 

cotton, 348. 

grasses, 377. 

oats, 155. 

wheat, 129. 
Fescue, meadow : 

adaptation, 216. 

cultural methods, 217. 

description, 215. 
, uses, 216. 
Fescue, tall, 215. 
Fiber crops, 11, 337. 
Field bean, 320. 
Field crops: 

classification of, 9. 

miscellaneous, 12. 
Field pea : 

adaptation of, 317. 

cultural methods of, 318. 

description of, 316. 

distribution of, 317. 

harvesting of, 319. 

uses of, 318. 
Flax: 

adaptation of, 355. 

culture of, 355. 

description of, 351. 

distribution of, 354. 

production of, 354. 

use of fiber, 253. 

use of seed, 354. 
Flea beetle, 367. 
Flour, composition of, 119. 
Flour, kinds of, 116. 
Flour mill, 114. 
Food of plants, 1. 



Forage crops, 10. 
Foxtail millets, 221. 
French clover, 272. 
Fungous diseases of : 

corn, 96. 

oats, 162. 

wheat, 142. 

German clover, 272. 
German millet, 223. 
Gluten feed, 52. 
Gluten meal, 52. 
Glycine hispida, 305. 
Gossypium barbadense, 341. 
Gossypium hirsutum, 341. 
Grades of grain, 386. 
Grain crops, 10. 
Grain inspection, 386. 
Grain of poverty, 181. 
Gramineae, 5, 11. 
Green manure crop, 12, 179. 
Grub worm, 94. 

Hairy vetch, 294. 
Hard-winter wheat, 124. 
Head-row test, 139. 
Hemp, 356. 
Hessian fly, 143. 
Hominy, 51. 
Hordeum sativum, 165. 
Horticultural crops, 8. 
Hull-less barley, 168. 
Hungarian millet, 223. 

Inoculation for legumes, 250. 
Insect enemies of : 

clovers, 276. 

corn, 93. 

cotton, 351. 

potatoes, 366. 

wheat, 142. 
Italian rye grass, 220. 

Japan clover, 303. 
Japanese millet, 225. 
Johnson grass, 219. 
June beetle, 367. 

Kafir, 233. 

Kentucky bhie-grass, 3, 201. 



INDEX 



421 



Late blight of potatoes, 368. 
Legumes : 

bacteria in relationship to, 247. 

description of, 239. 

flowers of, 240. 

fruit of, 241. 

importance of insects, 243. 

inoculation for, 250. 

membership of family, 239. 

pollination of, 242. 

relation to bacteria, 247. 

relation to soil fertility, 245. 
Leguminosse, 11, 239, 253. 
Lespedeza striata, 303. 
Linen fabrics, 353. 
Listing of land, 72. 
Lolium italicum, 220. 
Lolium perenne, 219. 

Maize, 29. 

Malt, making of, 168. 
Malt sprouts, 169. 
Mammoth clover, 264. 
Mangel-wurzels, 329. 
Marketing of grain, 381. 
Meadow fescue, 215. 
Meadows : 

care of, 377. 

grass mixtures for, 372. 

improvement of, 378. 

rotations for, 371. 

seeding of, 377. 

substitute crops for, 380. 
Medicago maculata, 302. 
Medicago sativa, 279. 
Melilotus alba, 298. 
Melilotus officinalis, 298. 
Millets : 

cultural methods of, 227. 

seeding of, 227. 

substitute crops, 227. 

uses, 226. 

yield of, 227. 
Millets, kinds of : 

barnyard, 225. 

broom-corn, 224. 

common, 222. 

foxtail, 221. 

German, 223. 



Millets, kinds of — continued : 

Hungarian, 223. 

pearl, 226. 
Milling of wheat, 115. 
Milo, 234. 
Miscellaneous crops, 12. 

Names of plants, 5. 
Nonsaccharine sorghums, 232. 

Oats : 

adaptation of, 154. 

botanical characters of, 145. 

culture of, 155. 

exports of, 153. 

fertilizers for, 157. 

flowers of, 147. 

fungous diseases of, 162. 

harvesting of, 160. 

history of, 145. 

improvement of, 161. 

insect enemies of, 162. 

leaves of, 146. 

preparing land for, 156. 

production of, 152. 

rotations for, 155. 

seeding of, 158. 

spikelets of, 146. 

types of, 150. 

uses of, 150. 

varieties of, 150. 

variety tests of, 161. 
Oil cake, 344. 
Orchard grass : 

adaptation, 211. 

cultural methods, 212. 

description, 210. 

distribution, 211. 

seed, weight per bushel, 211. 

uses, 211. 
Oryza sativa, 184. 

Panicum crus-galli, 225. 
Panicuni miliaceujn, 224. 
Papilionaceae, 239. 
Pastures : 

care of, 377. 

grass mixtures for, 372. 

improvement of, 378. 



42i2 



INBEX 



Pastures — continued : 

rotations of, 371. 

temporary, 379. 

testing seed for, 377. 
Pea, the field, 316. 
Peanut, 321. 
Pearl millet, 226. 
Perennial grasses, 194, 210. 
Perennial rye grass, 219. 
Phaseolus vulgaris, 320. 
Phleum pratense, 194. 
Pisum sativum, 316. 
Plants : 

classes of, 6. 

classification of, 2. 

cultivated, 1, 8. 

dicotyledonous, 7. 

divisions of, 6. 

families of, 3. 

food supply of, 1. 

genera, 2. 

kingdoms, 1. 

life of, 7. 

monocotyledonous, 7. 

naming of, 3. 

orders of, 6. 

species of, 3. 

uncultivated, 8. 

uses of, 2. 

varieties of, 3. 
Plowing : 

fall, 63. 

spring, 65. 
Poa compressa, 206. 
Poa pratensis, 201. 
Pollination of legumes, 242. 
Polygonaceae, 189. 
Potato : 

adaptation of, 360. 

blights of, 368. 

description of, 359. 

dry rot of, 369. 

fertilizers for, 362. 

harvesting of, 366. 

history of, 358. 

insect enemies of, 366. 

northern grown seed, 362. 

planting of, 361. 

production of, 359. 



Potato — continued: 

rotations for, 360. 

running out of, 364. 

scab, 368. 

storage of, 366. 

sun sprouting of, 361. 

varieties of, 363. 

yield of, 359. 
Poulard wheat. 111. 
Price of grain, 392. 

Rape : 

adaptation of, 333. 

cultural methods, 335. 

description of, 333. 

uses of, 334. 
Red clover, 254. 
Red-top : 

adaptation of, 208. 

cultural methods of, 209. 

description of, 206. 

distribution of, 208. 

seed, weight per bushel, 207. 

uses, 208. 
Red-winter wheat, 123. 
Rice : 

adaptation of, 187. 

botanical characters of, 184. 

by-products of, 186. 

cultural methods of, 188. 

harvesting of, 189. 

history of, 184. 

imports of, 185. 

irrigation of, 185, 188. 

kernel of, 185. 

production of, 186. 

roots of, 184. 

seeding of, 188. 

spikelets of, 185. 

upland, 185, 188. 

uses of, 185. 

yield of, 187. 
Roller, use of, 67. 
Root crops, 11, 323. 
Rutabaga, 331. 
Rye: 

adaptation of, 181. 

botanical characters of, 177. 

bread from, 178. 



INDEX 



423 



Rye — continued : 
culm of, 178. 
culture of, 182. 
flour, 178. 
forage crops, 179. 
fungous diseases of, 183. 
green manure crop, 179. 
history of, 177. 
insect enemies of, 183. 
kernel of, 178. 
pasturing, 179. 
production of, 180. 
roots of, 177. • 
seeding of, 182. 
soils for, 181. 
spikelets of, 177. 
uses of, 178. 
yield of, 181. 

Saccharine sorghums, 229. 
Sale of grain, 389. 
Scab of potato, 368. 
Sea Island cotton, 341. 
Secale cereale, 177. 
Shipping grain, 382. 
Silage crops, 13. 
Silo, filling of. 79. 
Six-rowed barley, 167. 
Smut, treatment for, 132. 
Soiling crop, 12. 
Sorghum halpensis, 228. 
Sorghums : 

classes of, 229. 

description, 228. 
Sorghums, nonsaccharine : 

culture of, 237. 

description of, 232. 

kafir, 233. 

milo, 234. 

varieties of, 233. 
Sorghums, saccharine : 

cultural methods of, 230. 

description of, 229. 

harvesting of, 231, 232. 

varieties of, 230. 
Sorgo, 229. 
Soy bean : 

adaptation of, 307. 

cultural methods of, 310. 



Soy bean — continued : 

description of, 305. 

distribution of, 307. 

harvesting of, 311. 

seeding of, 310. 

uses, 308. 
Species of plants, 3. 
Spelt, 108. 
Spermatophytes, 6. 
Spring vetch, 297. 
Substitute hay crops, 380. 
Sugar beet : 

adaptation, 326. 

cultural methods, 326. 

description, 324. 

distribution, 325. 

seeding, 327. 

seed production, 329. 

sugar manufacturing, 328. 
Sun sprouting potatoes, 363. 
Sweedish clover, 269. 
Sweet clover, 298. 

Temporary pastures, 379. 
Teosinte, 38. 
Testing seed : 

corn, 68. 

grass, 374. 
Thallophytes, 6. 
Timothy : 

adaptation, 196. 

cultural methods, 197. 

cutting for hay, 198. 

cutting for seed, 200. 

description of, 194. 

distribution of, 196. 

history of, 194. 

improvement of, 200. 

mixtures of, 197. 

seeding of, 197. 

seed, weight per bushel, 196. 

yield of, 200. 
Toxic substances in soil, 22. 
Trifolium, 253. 
Trifolium hybridum, 269. 
Trifolium incarnatum, 270. 
Trifolium pratense, 254. 
Trifolium pratense perenne, 264, 
Trifolium repens, 266- 



424 



INDEX 



Triticum sativum, 107. 
Turnip, 231. 
Two-rowed barley, 167. 

Variety tests, 83, 137. 
Vetch, hairy : 

adaptations of, 294. 

cultural methods of, 295. 

description of, 294. 
Vetch, spring, 297. 
Vicia saliva, 294. 
Vicia villosa, 294. 
Vigna unguiculata, 312. 

Weeder, use of, 75. 
Wheat : 

adaptation of, 127, 128. 

bread wheats, 112. 

by-products of, 118. 

classification of, 107. 

club wheat, 110. 

common wheat, 1 10. 

cultivation of, 113. 

culture of, 129. 

districts in United States, 123. 

durum. 111, 126. 

flower of, 104-105. 

fungous diseases of, 142. 

grades of, 386. 

hard-wheats, 124. 



Wheat — continued : 

harvesting of, 134. 

head-row-test, 139. 

history of, 99. 

improvement of, 136. 

insect enemies of, 142. 

judging of, 141. 

kernels of, 106. 

leaves of, 103. 

milling of, 115. 

preparing land for, 129. 

preparing seed, 131. 

production of, 119. 

red-winter wheat, 123. 

roots of, 100. 

rotations for, 129. 

seeding of, 132. 

smut treatment, 132. 

soft wheats, 125. 

spikelets of, 104. 

stems of, 101. 

storage of, 136. 

types of, 107. 

uses of, 113. 

variety tests of, 137,, 

yield of, 121. 
White clover, 266. 
Wire-worm, 93. 

Zea mays, 4, 30, 41. 



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